JOURNAL OF POPULATION ASSOCIATION OF IRAN
Year:2006 | Volume:1 | Issue:1|Papers Count:9

This paper considers the relationship between maternal education and infant mortality in Iran. The observed association between maternal education and infant mortality may arise from the association of these variables with the household's socio-ecdnomic status and community characteristics. Consequently, an attempt was made to control these two variables. Data used is from Iran Demographic and Health Survey (2000). Logistic regression is used to analyze the data. The results show that, after controlling for socio-economic status and place of residence of households, the association between maternal education and infant mortality is reduced, but does not disappear. In addition, compared to urban areas, this association is weaker in rural areas. The importance of these results for policy making in order to reduce infant mortality is discussed.

The state of socio-economic development process of each country is determined by human recourses which is the base of a nation's wealth. Therefore, complete and appropriate exploitation of human resources should be considered as one of the development approach goals. Although all people have a share in labor kind activities, but only people who are engaged in formal jobs are called the active population. Labor force supply depends on population growth rate, age and sex composition, and the labor force participation rate. High growth rate of population causes rapid growth rate of labor force supply in the future. Age and sex composition of population also affects the labor force supply. The more proportion of population 10 years old and over, the more labor force supply. In recent years, the rate of education of women has had a remarkable growth but their participation in the labor market didn’t increase appropriately. In spite of increase in education of women during the years 1986-96, the labor participation rate of them remained 11 percent and didn't change much during that period. The female participation rate increased to 16.5 percent in the year 2005.During 1996-2005 period, the annual growth rate of total population was 1.5 percent, whereas, the annual growth rate of active population was 4.4 percent. Such huge difference between the two rates is mainly due to the cohort effect and the exceptional rise in fertility during 1976-86 period, which was followed by a sharp decline after 1986.

The widowhood is one of four categories of the marital status. Inasmuch as the probability of a second marriage after the death of spouse for females is less than males, the widowhood becomes more frequent for females. In this article an attempt is made to elaborate on the demographic characteristics of widows and changes in those characteristics overtime on the basis of survey and census data. Trends and determinants of changes in the number, age structure, education and urbanization of widows and their mean years of married life are the issues taken into the consideration in this study.Excess of widows over the widowers and the exceptional rise of such an excess due to the imposed war in 1986, gradual decrease in the range of the percentage of widows between age 15 to 65 years old which is due to rise in the life expectancy of men, gradual rise in the mean age of widowhood, the positive impact of education on duration of married life and excess of the rate of urbanization of widows over the total population are among the salient findings of this article.

This article is offered in two parts. In the first part, after reviewing the concepts and definitions of the household on the basis of statistical sources, an attempt is made to elaborate on the effect of changes in definitions on the number and mean size of the household and to study the basic characteristics of household in Iran by taking those changes into the consideration. Among the characteristic studied are the number and the type of household, growth rate of households in comparison to the growth rate of total population and the structure of household by size and head of household's characteristics. Inconsistency in the growth rate of household compared with total population between 1991 and 1996 which raises the question of either under enumeration or incorrect coding and tabulation of 1996 census is an important finding of the first part of the article. In addition to that, reduction in the share of households with large numbers and, from there, reduction in the mean size of the household, increase in the household headed by a woman with no employed member and increase in the importance of private sector activities as the main source of the head of the household's employment are among the salient findings of this part.In the second part emphasize is made on the inefficiency of the current methods for projection of the number and mean size of the household which is mainly due to the reduction of fertility after 1986. By evaluation of current methods, such as the regression method and the method of incorporating changes in the size of the household with future changes in fertility, an attempt is made to project the number and size of the household in the next few decades.

The results of the demographic studies and research have progressively been used by planners and policy makers during the last half a century. While the scientific studies of population played an effective role in formulation of national and international policies, the question raises that what has been the impact of the international political changes and development programs on the scientific identity of demography?This article attempts to discuss, with a holistic approach, the impact of the global social, economic and political changes on the wisdom of demography.After an overview of the history of the development of population sciences in the last few centuries, an attempt is made to elaborate on the consequences of recent development programs and international political events, such as world wars, diffusion of communism, cold war and social movements supporting women's rights and birth control on shaping the population issues and studies.This article, also, emphasizes on the necessity of attention to the impact of general atmosphere and international political events on the orientation, interpretation and application of demographic studies and research and the importance of demographers commitment to maintain the scientific spirit and principles of their field of study.

Generally it is said that among the ethnic groups, such as Iranian Turkmen, there is an early pattern of the age at marriage. In other words, it is mostly claimed that ethnicity is a powerful force in reducing the marriage age. In order to study this issue, changes in the marriage age among Turkmen people especially those residing in Turkmen shahrestan of Golestan province in the north of Iran have been explored by reviewing some anthropological reports and examining statistical sources such as censuses and sample surveys. The study revealed that the age at marriage among Turkmen was, however, early in the past, but at present both males and females marry relatively late.Among the two factors of modernization, that is, the literacy and urbanization, the changing pattern of marriage timing among Turkmen is attributable, in some extent, to literacy, but the relationship between urbanization and marriage timing is not clear.On the other hand, traditional norms and practices governing marriage practice such as endogamy, payment of bride price and other payments at the time of marriage ceremony along with population growth followed by marriage squeeze and restrictions in occupational opportunities during recent decades have had considerable influences on the marriage timing among Turkmen people.

There is a considerable difference in biological eligibility, for marriage, between males and females, which can make the age difference between spouses more prominent. In addition, variations in social norms and laws regarding marriage, through their effect on the conditions of family formation, can affect the age differences. The age difference can influence spouse's fecundity, the stability of marital union, marital satisfaction and the ideal number of children. Using the data from a survey on "socio-economic characteristics of households", conducted by Iranian Statistical Center in 2001, this paper aims to examine the factors affecting the age differences between spouses. For more than 85% of marriages, the age difference was in favor of men (older husbands). The mean age difference was positively related to men's age, urban residency, and levels of education, women's literacy rate and educational difference between spouses (in favor of men). For women, job outside the home, more freedom in spouse selection and age showed negative relationship with the age differences. The relation between the age differences and women's levels of education was arch-shape, being the greater differences for medium level of education. In the multivariate analysis, the significant effects of most individual independent variables were disappeared. This can reflect the sustainability of the cultural norms prescribing elder husbands across socio-economic differences.

In this study, we have demonstrated that differences in the attitude, behavior and fertility level of ethnic groups are the reaction of their different position in the educational system caused by unequal development. Findings show that there are deep educational inequality, sex imbalance in literacy and level of education, with higher intensity among Kurd ethnic group, and significant differences in the attitudes, behavior and fertility level among ethnic group.Yet, after controlling the effect of independent variables, ethnic differences in fertility declined from 2 children into 0.57 children. In general, 39.3% of ethnic group's fertility variance is explained by the variables studied.Because of high level of educational inequality, attitudes and fertility ideals are also different and support high and low fertility Among Kurds and Turks respectively. These different attitudes caused different demographic functions and continuation of this situation will cause demographic divergency become the predominant in surveyed society.

The aim of this article is to analyze migration in Iran in two decades 1976- 1986 & 1986-96 according to a theory the writer had developed in 1986. Centralization of social relations is considered as the resultant of internal forces and war, insecurity of border territories and external economic forces are considered as external forces. According to the theory, centralization of social relations through its appropriate technology underpinned centralized distribution of facilities in the center or centers of the relations, and population headed to these centers to gain the facilities. External forces intervened the mentioned process where they were applicable. The used statistics for 1976-86 and 1986-96 decades have approved that population movement in Iran had followed the above rule. Qualitative and quantitative techniques are used in this analysis and the results are approved by both methods.