Journal of Religious Studies
Year:2008 | Volume:2 | Issue:3|Papers Count:9

"Khuthbah al-Bayan" is a sermon ascribed to Imam Ali which consists of a group of rhythmical sentences which begin with the pronoun "I". It describes Imam Ali as a Perfect Man, who is ready to annihilate in God (fana). Since "Khuthbah al-Bayan" is similar to the Sufis' ecstatic utterances (shathhts), it has been welcomed by the followers of the esoteric sects of Islam, some groups of Shi‘ites and Sufis. On the other hand, there are some other Muslims, specially the opponents of the Sufis, who do not recognize in the originality and authority of this sermon. Therefore, there have been diverse viewpoints about "Khuthbah al-Bayan" in the Muslim world.This essay begins with a bibliographical account of the "Khuthbah al-Bayan" in accordance with typological divisions; it then, surveys the different versions of the sermon and finally deals with the history of the "Khuthbah" and its relation with the shaths. In doing so, this essay tries to explain the multiple meanings of the shaths and observe the background of this concept in Sufism. Therefore the viewpoints of Rūzbihan Baqli other of the exegetes of the "Khuthbah" such as Mirsharif Nuqthawi, Dihdar Shirazi, Abd al-Samad Hamadani, Raz Dhahabi and Mirza Qumi are mentioned. Finally, this essay comes to this conclusion that "Khuthbah al-Bayan" could be treated as a shath.

In the late 18th Century C.E., decades after the Western Enlightenment, an Enlightening movement appeared among the European Jews. This movement was established by the important Jewish thinker, Moses Mendelssohn in Germany and particularly in Berlin. Then it gradually spread to other cities and countries in Central and Eastern Europe, including France, England, Austria, Poland, Italy and Russia and lasted more than one century. The adherents of this movement were called Maskil (pl. Maskilim) that means "an intellectual and open-minded". The central theme of the movement was rationality and criticism of traditional Jewish life and thought. In practice, it was going to remove seclusion of the Jews and to assimilate them in the non-Jewish societies. Therefore, the Maskilim struggled with those symbols of Jewish life which caused their separation and isolation from the rest of the society. The specific characteristics of Haskalah were rationality, critical and Philosophical-mindedness, opposition to Yiddish language, promotion of secular education and secular sciences, promotion of local languages along with Hebrew, encouraging productive occupations, moving towards assimilation of the Jews in non-Jewish societies of Europe and trying to involve them in social and political issues of their country.

"Perfect Man" is a significant term in Islamic mysticism which was used for the first time by Muhi al-Din ibn al-Arabi, a prominent Muslim mystic of 13th century C.E. After ibn al-Arabi, this concept was received and developed by his disciples and the followers of his mystical school. Nasafi, in his works, focuses on this concept and in its exposition, he considers two degrees or two variants for the Perfect Men in the hierarchy of human perfection: Perfect Men and free Perfect Men. For Nasafi Perfect Man is one who perfectly possesses these four qualities: good speech, good deed, good moral and good cognition. Therefore a Perfect Man should be perfect in Islamic law (shari‘ah), mystical path (thariqah) and the truth (haqiqah). The free Perfect Man is a higher degree than the Perfect Man. He should possess eight qualities: good speech, good deed, good moral, good cognition, voluntary abstinence (tark), living in seclusion (‘uzlah), contentment (qina‘t) and inactivity (khumul). This essay tries to survey the significant concept of "Perfect Man" from the viewpoint of Aziz Nasafi, a mystic who mostly has been ignored in the scholastic studies.

Mazdaism, like other great religions, emphasizes the continuity of human generation through marriage. In this religion, men and women enjoy relatively equal rights, not only in their marriage but also in some other religious laws. In Mazdaism, the conditions of the marriage contract are as follows: being Mazdian, maturity, not having any forbidden conditions of marriage, healthiness, agreement of the both sides, presence of one priest and seven or at least two witnesses. Therefore, the consent of the bride's parents is not simply enough for a girl to marry.In Mazaism adultery is strongly forbidden and is followed by severe punishments, because it causes the individual distortion, family weakness and social corruption. From Mazdian point of view, divorce is an improper act and just on the condition of adultery, childlessness and not performing the husband and wife duties, it is permitted by the court. According to the Mazdian religion, marriage is a religious duty and in fact, it is the first social duty of a mature man or woman, because, through increasing Ashavans (righteous men and women), the good will be strengthened and the evil will be defeated.

Śaivism, a major sect of Hinduism, enjoys many devotees in India. Śiva, a god with paradoxical attributes, is devotionally worshiped in Śaivism. Śiva is, in fact, a pre-Vedic god which developed in a relatively long period, from pre-Vedic civilization to later Hinduism, and finally became a prominent god of India. This development is traceable in the Hindu scriptures. Besides, the remnants of the glorious pre-Vedic civilization, especially in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, cast some light on the study of this development. Some scholars believe that pre-Vedic teachings and religious practices survived among the lower classes of the Hindu society and was gradually transmitted to other classes. These pre-Vedic beliefs mingled with the Vedic religion and finally brought forth the Yoga school and Śaivism. Therefore, in later Hinduism, we can see several Śaiva sects with their specific beliefs and practices.

Hasidism, the last mystical movement in Judaism, emerged and developed in the second half of the 18th century C.E. Tsaddiq or Zaddik is the cornerstone of Hasidic community and as a concept, it is the distinguishing quality of Hassidic mysticism compared with other Jewish mystical trends. In Hasidism, Zaddik is a perfect man who intercedes with god on behalf of his followers and conveys their prayers to Him. He is believed to be a channel from God to men, through which the divine grace flows and brings blessings to his followers. Zaddik is the teacher and spiritual leader of the community. His followers pay more attention to his acts and behavior than what he teaches and preaches. Zaddik is believed to be highly holy and enjoys a charismatic personality, which is not resulted from his knowledge of Torah and religious precepts, but from his spiritual state and his proximity to god.

Śakti, from Sanskrit shak, means sacred power and energy. In Hindu scriptures, it means the "efficient energy" of the Supreme Principle, or the feminine aspect of the Supreme Principle, which is responsible for every act of creation. According to Tantric doctrines, the supreme Śakti is the only feminine substance behind the well-known triple-aspect of The Reality i.e. Sat, Chit, Ananda. Thus, similar to Brahman in Advaita Vedanta, Śakti is also regarded as "Satchidananda", and like Brahman, it descends into the world of manifestation, while keeping herself concealed and unperceivable behind the veil of universal illusion, i.e. the Maya. Śakti is also responsible for the world's final destination, so much so that the whole manifestation is supposed to be reintegrated into its single substance, i. e. the Śakti. Therefore, Śakti is the supreme creative substance, the divine-mother, from her sacred womb the whole manifestation comes forth and to her, the world strongly desires to return.