JOURNAL OF THE FACULTY OF LETTERS AND HUMANITIES (UNIVERSITY OF ISFAHAN)
Year:2004 | Volume:- | Issue:36-37|Papers Count:15

Durmg the late 19Th century and at the turn of the 20Th century Bushehr was an important region in terms of Iranian contact with Europeans. The economic and political conflicts of great powers in the Persian gulf region and geostrategic role of Bushehr in Persian gulf developments in the late 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century, as well as attention of foreign countries, particularly French, to this port and its related changes are the main themes of this article.

The underlying assumption of the present paper is that there are rules governing history. Different views on how the rules operate have brought about differtent views. The present paper attempts to investigate whether Ibn-Khaldon"s view on decline could be applied to governments after him.

The historical invasionof Mongolswithinthe years of 616 to 619 (H) brought about great demolition and massacre in the civilized centers of Iran. After the ebbing of the Mongol sedition,the life over the destroyed cities and villages of Iran continued in spite of complicated and challenging conditions. But the spread of destruction augmented due to the military skirmishes and military expeditions within Iran. Although with the formation of IIkhanidgovernmenta new perspectivefor the reconstructionof the city centers in Iran was developing, the instability of Iran state of affairs as well as the differences and oppositions between the invading group and the invaded nation hindered the formation of construction process and development. With the rise of a Moslem Sultan, Qazan, to the throne, a special change was brought. The efforts of Qazan in expanding social, political, administrative, economicaland legal reformationsbroughtabout a new milieuin IIkhanidperiod. The most importantresult of this great historicalevent was a change in the view of Mongal rulers of Iran toward commonpeople and the participationof Iranian society in construction.The spread of construction in the period of Qazan ruling was the origin of important changes in the conditions of the cities in Iran. The present article investigatesthe importance of Qazani reformations and its relation with construction in Iran. This article also investigates the scope of construction in IIkhanidterritory and justifies the important measures of Qazan.

The era after the prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him) is distinguished o by spreading abroad of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula. The fall of the Iranian monarchy and threatening of the great empire Byzantiumin the first decades after the prophet"s passing away was in the shade of a powerful and regular army as well as the militaristic and strategic knowledge of the Caliphs. The volunteers for Jihad as the era of the prophet could not cover the spread of operational fields, therefore other approaches should have been adapted such as compulsory mobilization and ensuring of military forces for war. This case was favorite issue to the second Caliph and other Abbasids and Omayyas Caliphs. The establishment of a special bureau for the combatants and registration of their names and characteristics as well as their salaries facilitated them to be ready at any time. In this paper; we focus on compulsory mobilization and establishment of a permanent and stable force beside voluntary participationof the Moslems for a new effective approach.

Most of religious and political texts of ancient Iran were composed in the form of syllabic poetry. This type of poetry was accompanied by music to stay in mind and be protected from embezzlement of cultural brigand. Religious beliefs and the popularity of religious and national figures were strong support for the oral culture of ancient Iran. In the meantime, professional musicians (gusn, huniagar) had a role in keeping and transmission of the oral culture. This role and status is not only observed in Iran, but also among the Georgian and Armenians so that later Persian musician were accused uf blasphemy and atheism by Christian

The land of Mazandaran had just been released at the oppression at rulers and domestic Khans and its people had become the followers of Seyyed Ghavam"ud-din Mar"ashi whose instructions were on the principles of twelve lmam Shiism Feghh and the tradition of "fotovvat" (generosity). The government that Mara"shid formed was based on equality, development of social justice and elimination of oppression and unjustice. Mara"shids could not prevent Timur"s attack to Mazandaran and they were yielded in a terrible battle. In any case, the continuous attacks of Timur to Mazandaran and the wealth gathering of certain rulers were the main reasons for his giving up the power.

Merchants, who were reputable people in the social hierarchy of Iran, paid much attention to charity work among the poor. Their material wealth vested in them a huge political and social power, which they used, among other things, in activities for the common good of the society, for example, helping to establish new style schools with modern curriculum. A number of most distinguished merchants had ties with the new Iranian intelegentsia and had become acquainted with the modern way of doing business. Nevertheless, the majority of the merchants still operated through the traditional business networks which worked via a large number of trading houses. Of the characteristics of commerce in the years immediately after the end of the World War I, was the widespread use of brokerage on Iranian merchants part on behalf of foreign commercial firms, a grave shortage of cash, and state monopolization of trade in he Soviet Russia which led to bankruptcy of a number of the Iranian merchants. Tax evasion and widespread smuggling of goods into Iran were two other characteristics of this era which flourished in the war time and widely continued afterwards.The merchants also got involved in establishing new commercial institutions, investingin the modem industries,land holdingand obtaining state concessions.

This article is an attempt to elaborate on the development and influence of Iranian culture, especially in the fields of literature and language in India. This subject is divided into two main parts: 1) the role of the government in cultural development and 2) the foundation of Iranian culture in India. The first part deals with the suitable fields in which the different nations had the chance to get familiar with other cultures. Such an opportunity was achieved in the north and the east of India. The removal of boundaries and political obstacles had facilitated the traffics for the researchers, scholars and literary men. The Turks themselves had absorbed Iranian culture and wherever they had a conquest,they would convey this cultural aspect. Besides, the Ghaznavids"support encouragedresearchers and literary individuals which is another significant element in pervading Iranian culture in India. The second section shows how Iranian Ulamas and scholarshad departed to India to spread the Islamic culture. Iranian literature, as the most dominant feature of the culture,became prevalent in areas such as Punjab, Delhi,Ghujarat and the Ganges valley. Since the 5th century and "Iranian-Indian"culture was formed in Lahoor. Regardlessof the religion and literature,a mutual influence can be traced in other fields such as architecture, mathematics, astronomy and arts.

When the Parni nomadic tribes came to Khorasan from north steppes, the Greeks and Romans colled them Parthians. The reason for their migration is to some extent clear but the reason why they stayed does not seem to be equal to the reason of their coming. The Ashkanids were strong and rich tribes and the Macadonians and the Greeks who were in the east of Iran were not happy with the government of Soloukian. This provided a good opportunity for the Parthians to stay in Khorasan by conquering the Soloukians, a government which lasted more than 100 years. They established and strengthened their government in Khorasan. There is, yet, a question as to the aim of Parthians in Khorasan. Did they intendto conquer Soloukiansand to govern the heritage of the Achaemenidae?

Insecurity has been recognized as one of the principal characters against development in Iran. This character, in particular, at the early two decades of the 20thcentury, when the country faced to a variety of crisis, has been remarkably ostentatious. The Constitutional Revolution (1906), the coup (1908) and the rise of the First World War (1914-1918) are of those crises that affected the Iranian circumstances of the social life. The reflection of this situation was nothing except the wide rate of insecurity. The insecurity had different forms. This work endures to explore one of the important aspects of its features --robbery out of the city. Robbery indeed had been observed in the majority of the routs around the country. However, this research tries to focus on the main routs of the province that came to the Isfahan city. On the other side, as the consequence of the foreign interest in the field of economy and trade, the number of their subjects rapidly elevated and they were one of the most beneficial targets for bandits. Thus, this work also will concentrate on the foreign claims for their losses and damages.