Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) are small, short-lived and highly reactive molecules that can oxidize proteins, lipids and DNA. ROS are formed by incomplete one-electron reduction of oxygen. ROS include oxygen anions, free radicals, including superoxide and hydroxyl radicals, and peroxides such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Autophagy is a catabolic pathway for degradation of intracellular proteins and organelles via the lysosome. Autophagy is activated under stress conditions such as starvation, ischemia/reperfusion and pathogen infection, and is deregulated in various pathological conditions, including cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. It is generally accepted that ROS induce autophagy, and that autophagy, in turn, serves to reduce oxidative damage. Cells have developed various nonenzymatic and enzymatic antioxidizing agents to detoxify ROS and prevent oxidative stress. These include glutathione, thioredoxin, superopxide dismutase (SOD), catalase and peroxidases. ROS produced by damaged mitochondria might induce mitophagy, which in turn eliminates the damaged organelles. Two pathologies highly associated with the accumulation of ROS are cancer and ischemia/reperfusion. The role of mitochondria as ROS generators, is essential for the activation of autophagy. Autophagy is a survival mechanism in response to ROS. Removal of damaged mitochondria and oxidized proteins, in most cases, supports survival.

Background: Cytoplasm and mitochondria are considered as the major origins of sperm ROS production.Sperm is prone to DNA damage by exposure to ROS or due impaired chromatin remodeling or low DNA protamination.Therefore, the aim of this study was to see if there is any association between impaired chromatin packaging and origin of ROS production.Materials and Methods: Cytosolic ROS, mitochondrial ROS, DNA protamination and apoptosis were evaluated with dichlorofluorescindiacetate (DCFH-DA), dihydrorhodamine 123 (DHR123), chromomycin A3 (CMA3) and YO-Pro-1/propidium iodide respectively, by flow cytometry (FCM) in 40 infertile individuals.Results: Both percentages of DCF and R123 positive sperm were associated with percentage CMA3-positive sperm and negatively associated with percentage apoptotic sperm. No correlation was observed between CMA3-positive sperm and percentage apoptotic sperm.Conclusion: Under protamination of sperm is not associated with origin of ROS production, but their relation suggest that they are associated with general physiological dysfunction of sperm. Furthermore, under protamination does not prone sperm to apoptosis.

Background and Purpose: An important factor involved in infertility is reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS can damage sperm DNA, and involve lipid per-oxidation. ROS elevation is under the influence of leukocyte activation. The objective of this study was to evaluate the level of ROS as well as leukocyte, in normozoospermic (NO) and ologoasthenoteratozoospermic (OAT) ejaculates.Materials and Methods: The study population consisted of 75 individuals who were referred to the Research and Clinical Center, regarding infertility in Yazd, for semen analysis. Fifty (50) out of Seventy-Five (75) men were NO, and the remaining was OAT. ROS was measured with laminator, while leukocyte concentration was analyzed with the ENDTZ test.Results: The results showed that ROS levels in OAT was significantly higher compared with NO (1253.49±200.95 vs. 75.64±149.52; P=0.00). Furthermore, men with OAT were divided into 2 groups, with sperm morphology and motility >5% and <5%. In group >5%, ROS level was significantly higher than the group with <5% (3627.55±407.79 vs. 81.29±100.48; P=0.007). In addition, leukocyte concentration in NO was 0.07±0.22x106; while it was 0.12±0.20x106 in OAT samples; P=0.35).Conclusion: The results indicate although ROS is present in normal seminal samples, it is significantly higher in OAT. This shows the vital role of antioxidants, which may improve the sperm quality. Further clinical studies will pinpoint the antioxidant capacity in improving the seminal contents.