Background and Objectives: After live attenuated and subunit vaccines, DNA vaccines were introduced as a third generation vaccine in the field of vaccinology. This type of vaccine is a promising approach to deal with infectious agents in the future. Although, many aspects of this type of vaccine has not yet been identified, its use has been initiated in humans and clinical trials, and several DNA vaccines have been developed against veterinary infectious diseases. This generation of vaccine has provided new approaches to deal with and control existing diseases. In addition to infectious diseases, this type of vaccine can also be used against different types of tumors. Despite numerous attempts, only one type of DNA vaccine has been approved for use in human. The present study focuses on biology, advantages, and disadvantages of DNA vaccine and investigates its capacity in stimulating different types of immune responses.

Neisseria meningitidis has 13 clinically significant serogroups, classified according to the antigenic structure of their polysaccharide capsule. Six serogroups, A, B, C, Y, W-135, and X, are responsible for virtually all cases of the disease in humans. Quadrivalent (Serogroups A, C, W-135, and Y) There are currently three vaccines available in the US to prevent meningococcal disease, all quadrivalent in nature, targeting serogroups A, C, W-135, and Y: Two conjugate vaccines (MCV-4), Menactra and Menveo, and One polysaccharide vaccine (MPSV-4), Menomune, produced by Sanofi Pasteur. Bivalent (Serogroups C and Y): On 2012, the FDA approved a new combination vaccine against two types of meningococcal disease and Hib disease for infants and children 6 weeks to 18 months old. The vaccine, Menhibrix, will prevent disease caused byNeisseria meningitidis serogroups C and Y and Haemophilus influenzae type b. This is the first meningococcal vaccine that can be given to infants as young as six weeks old. Serogroup A: A vaccine called MenAfriVac has been developed through a program called the Meningitis Vaccine Project and has the potential to prevent outbreaks of group A meningitis. Serogroup B: Vaccines against serotype B meningococcal disease have proved difficult to produce, and require a different approach from vaccines against other serotypes. Serogroup X: The occurrence of serogroup X has been reported in North America, Europe, Australia, and West Africa. Current meningoccocal meningitis vaccines are not known to protect against serogroup X N. meningitidis disease. Side effects of the vaccine include: Common side effects include pain and redness around the site of injection (up to 50% of recipients). A small percentage of people develop a mild fever. As with any medication, a small proportion of people develop a severe allergic reaction. The highest risk was when individuals received a dose of Soliris within 2 weeks after being vaccinated with Bexsero.

With the onset of the emerging coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) in late December 2019 in China and its rapid spread around the world, scientists began research to develop and produce an effective vaccine. COVID-19 is caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). One of the most important structural features of this coronavirus is the presence of spike protein on its surface. This spike protein has been considered by many scientists as a suitable target for the development of vaccines against COVID-19. The SARSCoV-2 spike protein binds directly to the ACE2 receptor on the surface of human alveolar epithelial cells (AECs), which facilitates virus entry and replication. By August 2021, more than 150 vaccines are developing in various stages of research and clinical trials to combat the pandemic. Most of these vaccines are based on attenuated infectious agent or mRNA, which can induce cellular and humoral immune systems to make antibodies to reduce the risk of death and severe complications when exposed to SARS-CoV-2. With the introduction of the first effective vaccine against COVID-19 by an American-German company called Pfizer–, BioNTech on December, 2020, nine months after the first case of COVID-19, scientists were able to complete the multi-year process of producing a new vaccine in less than 10 months and the hopes for saving human beings and returning to normal life came alive. Other reputable companies around the world have since introduced the vaccine, including Moderna, Johnson & Johnson, Oxford/AstraZeneca, Sputnik V, Covaxin, Novavax, Sinovac, and Sinopharm. However, most of these vaccines have not received final approval from reputable organizations such as the FDA and WHO. Iran has also made efforts to develop and produce vaccines in this regard. With the introduction of these vaccines, by August 11, 2021, about 4. 4 billion doses of vaccine have been injected worldwide, and global vaccination continues. Leading countries in vaccination include China, India, the United States, Brazil, and Japan, respectively. The major challenge facing existing vaccines is the variety of SARS-CoV-2 mutations that lead to the development of new strains that may be resistant to the vaccine. Therefore, scientific efforts to develop and upgrade vaccines continue.

A morphine-6-succinyl-BSA (M-6-S-BSA) hapten was designed in an effort to obtain a potent, long-lasting anti-morphine immune response for the treatment of morphine abuse. The analogue incorporated a succinic anhydride linker moiety in place of hydroxy group at C-6 of the morphine framework. Then morphine 6-hemisuccinate was conjugated to BSA in aqueous solution in the presence of water-soluble carbodi imide. M-6-S-BSA was synthesized in three chemical steps starting from morphine sulphate, and the extent of conjugation was determined by base hydrolysis of the conjugate, extraction and measurement of free morphine. Averages of 6.5 molecules of morphine were conjugated to each molecule of protein. Six rats, Albino wistar strain, immunized with various doses of the conjugate, were found to be producing antibody 8 weeks later, as determined by a modification of the (NH4) 2SO4 method, which measures primary binding of antigen by antibody.

Despite extensive efforts in the fight against tuberculosis during the last two decades, the disease is one of the leading causes of death and disability in the world. This fact demonstrates that existing means are insufficient to solve the problem, while many other infectious diseases have been eradicated, mostly due to efficacious vaccine. Thus, there is  an imperious need for developing more efficacious vaccines than existing BCG vaccine. The road to reach this goal is paved by extraordinary advances in the domains of molecular biology, Genomics and proteomics, which have permitted new discoveries in immunology, especially in recognizing new antigens and their methods of delivery. In this article we are reviewing the recent achievements in the process of developing new tuberculosis vaccines.

This research has presented a three-objective nonlinear mathematical programming model for optimizing the vaccine distribution chain in the pharmaceutical industry. With regard to stability issues, this involves considering location allocation, inventory under uncertain demand, and a crowded queue system with regard to stability and minimizing vaccination waiting times, ordering costs, vaccine holding costs, establishing new vaccination centers, and reducing harmful environmental waste caused by vaccinations and establishing new vaccination centers. As this problem is NP-hard, the NSGA_II algorithm was used. In a numerical example, sensitivity analysis showed that increasing the average waiting time decreased the total costs of the problem, while increasing the amount of generated garbage increased the total costs of the network. Moreover, a sensitivity analysis of the model at various levels of uncertainty revealed that with an increase in uncertainty, the network will have more people who need vaccines, which increases the network's costs. Due to the limited capacity of the centers and the fixed parameters of the network, costs increase. In contrast, the increased number of vaccines ordered and ready for distribution results in an increase in the average waiting time in distribution centers and waste. As a result of reducing the capacity of inoculation centers due to the fixed amount of vaccine orders, more centers were built, resulting in an increase in construction costs and increase in greenhouse gases due to the construction of a new center and transportation. Thus, the rate of entry to each center will decrease, as well as the length of the queue, ultimately leading to a decrease in average waiting time. In addition, 15 numerical examples have been examined to demonstrate the efficiency and design of the proposed algorithm.

Background and Objectives: After the introduction of the pneumococcal vaccine, an increase has been observed in the disease due to nonspecific stereotypes of the vaccine. This study was conducted to determine the spatial distribution of pneumococcal vaccine coverage and common stereotypes of streptococcus pneumonia after vaccine introduction in the vaccine recipient countries. Methods: The Web of Sciences, Medline, and Scopus were searched using a designed search strategy. Studies that reported the prevalence of the stereotypes of streptococcus pneumonia and replacement of the stereotypes were included. In addition, the coverage of pneumococcal vaccination in the countries was extracted from the reports of the World Health Organization. The spatial distribution of vaccine recipient countries and vaccination coverage were determined using the ArcGIS 10. 6. 1. Results: Of 6989 retrieved references, 325 studies were included. The highest proportion of vaccine recipient countries were in the African, European and Western Pacific regions. The vaccination coverage increased up to 2017 in the vaccine recipient countries. The common specific vaccine serotypes after the introduction of vaccine were 19A, 5, 3, 14, 19F, 7F, 23F, 6B. In addition, common nonspecific vaccine serotypes were 11A, 15A/B, 8, and 12F. Conclusion: The results indicated pneumococcal vaccination is not included in the immunization program in many countries. In addition, common serotypes after vaccine introduction of include 19A, 5, 3, 14, 19F, 7F, 23F, 6B. Therefore, it is recommended the health policymakers have a plan for pneumococcal vaccine introduction based on the pattern of the commonly detected stereotypes.