Almost a decade after the invention of the first semiconductor transistor in 1948, it took the revolutionary technology almost a decade to evolve from producing single devices to integrating only a few transistors as the first integrated circuit (IC) in 1958. Since then, integrated circuits have been in continuous progress for more than half a century as predicted by the well-known Moore’s law.

Microelectrode Arrays (MEAs) neural interfaces are considered implantable devices that interact with the nervous system to monitor and/or modulate brain activity. Graphene-based materials are utilized to address some of the current challenges in neural interface design due to their desirable features, such as high conductance, large surface-to-volume ratio, suitable electrochemical properties, biocompatibility, flexibility, and ease of production.In the current study, we fabricated and characterized a type of flexible, ultrasmall, and implantable neurostimulator based on graphene fibers. In this procedure, wet-spinning was employed to create graphene fibers with diameters of 10 to 50 µm. A 10-channel polyimide Printed Circuit Board (PCB) was then custom-designed and manufactured. The fibers were attached to each channel by conductive glue and also insulated by soaking them in a polyurethane solution. The tips were subsequently exposed using a blowtorch. Microstructural information on the fibers was obtained using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and the measurements of Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) were conducted for each electrode.Flexible MEAs were created using graphene fibers with diameters ranging from 10 to 50 microns with a spacing of 150 microns. This method leads to producing electrode arrays with any size of fibers and a variety of channel numbers. The flexible neural prostheses can replace conventional electrodes in both neuroscience and biomedical research.

Neonate ruminants possess little cell-wall and starch degrading enzyme activity. Importantly, early establishment of fibrolytic, amylolytic, and proteolytic capacities is influential for the early expansion of the reticulorumen epithelia. Such an early development in reticulorumen fermentation will enable a timely hepatic adaptation to volatile fatty acids assimilation. The early nutrient release in the reticulorumen can thus facilitate early weaning, reduce labor costs, save milk, and lessen health issues associated with late weaning. The principal objectives of this review are to delineate roles of exogenous, polysaccharidases (EP) in stimulating fermentation development of the reticulorumen in young ruminants, to discuss the literature on nutrient digestibility and calf performance response to dietary EPs, and to provide insights into future possibilities for using dietary EP for young ruminants. Evidence has been increasing that cow milk may reduce the risk of cancer development and cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, nutritional implications for humans of supplementing calf diets with EP and its potential for milk savings is also discussed. Dietary incentives leading to savings in milk would aid in meeting the rising human demands for well-distributed milk products. Applying EP to both pre- and post-weaning starters would need to be evaluated before EP could be commercially expected for young ruminants on a large scale. Any benefits of nutritional strategies to the animal industry must also consider their implications for human health. As such, dietary use of EP for young ruminants may be considered as an interface of animal nutrition, farm economics, and animal-human health.