This article first probes the relationship between general/utopian and specific/reformist approaches to social Problem Solving to endorse the paradigmatic shift from the former to the latter. It then presents the Popperian 3 world theory and augments it with the views of Lacatos to highlight the effective role of rival research programs and cross-criticism in social Problem Solving and the advancement of science. Finally, based on these theoretical formulations, the article critiques Problem Solving approaches within the Iranian academic structure. Problem Solving, science, 3 worlds, general to specific, research program, academia, objective knowledge, criticism, Iran.

Introduction: Deep physical and psychological changes in pregnancy can affect women's sexual relations. This study aims to investigate the effect of psychological counseling on Problem-Solving skills on sexual dysfunction and satisfaction of pregnant women. Methods: In a pre-test-post-test intervention study, 70 pregnant volunteers meeting the inclusion criteria, referring to health centers in Arak City, and with sexual function and sexual satisfaction questionnaire scores of less than 28 and 42, respectively, were randomly assigned to two intervention groups of 35 and a control group. The intervention group received six counseling sessions based on Problem-Solving, and both groups received routine care. Rosen's sexual performance questionnaire and Larson's sexual satisfaction questionnaire were answered by both groups before, immediately, and one month after the intervention. Data analysis was done using Chi-square, Fisher's exact test, and Repeated measure tests. Results: The repeated measure design test showed that immediately and one month after the intervention, the average sexual performance (26.82 ± 1.61 and 28.88 ± 1.1) and sexual satisfaction (39.22 ± 2.27 and 15.15) (43.19 ± 2) compared to the control group (23.69±1.97, 22.63±2.08) (36.23±2.44, 35.06±2.46) compared to the control group (P < 0.05). Conclusions: This study showed that counseling based on Problem-Solving improves the performance and sexual satisfaction of pregnant women effectively and can be included in educational protocols during pregnancy to improve the quality of sexual life.

Solving the Problems of everyday life is a common practice. Something becomes a Problem when we do not have a ready response for it. Actually, we encounter a Problem when we have a goal, but the way to reach it is not obvious. Sometimes the path to get the solution is obvious, while sometimes we face a complex pathway that requires further and more profound recognition. In architecture, like other fields of knowledge, the goal of some studies is to find solutions for the real Problems of the architectural world. In this paper, we aim to define Problem-Solving research in architecture, its elements, processes and types. This study is being carried out with the classification strategy to clarify the characteristics of Problem-Solving research in architecture. For this purpose, we selected 29 PhD dissertations that were defended in the world’ s top universities and sought to solve a Problem in architecture. In this article, their abstracts were reviewed and analyzed. We show that in the studies where the research process leads to a solution for a real Problem in architecture can be classified as Problem-Solving research. This kind of PhD dissertation uses scientific frameworks developed in other fields of knowledge for Solving real-world Problems, and therefore, similar to them, deal with two types of issues: well-defined and ill-defined Problems. Ill-defined Problems in architecture are often interdisciplinary with social sciences. These studies have a mixed-method approach and are in combination with other strategies. Problem-Solving research is being conducted to find technical solutions, design and management strategies.

We present a modification of three existing methods for finding a basic feasible solution for capacitated transportation Problem. To obtain an optimal solution, eht simplex algorithm for bounded variables is applied. Special properties of transportation Problem help us to operate each step of simplex algorithm directly on the transportation tableau. At last, numerical examples are represented to illustrate our method.