Introduction: Alternative punishments of imprisonment, which are called as a new approach of the penal system to fight against the negative consequences of prison, have many effects and consequences that need to be investigated. Therefore, in this study, while examining the types of alternative punishments, the moral and social effects of the implementation of these punishments have been explored. Materials and Methods: The present study was conducted using an analytical-descriptive method. In this study, in order to provide an appropriate answer to the question presented, by referring to the theoretical bases (books) and articles published in the ISC, Magiran, Civilica, SID and Ensani in the years 2011 to 2023 and with the method of extracting the existing legal provisions, the effectiveness of this type of punishment was also criticized in reaching the intended goals. Conclusion: The results of this study show that with the implementation of such punishments, the level of public trust, the growth of morals and social capital in the society will also improve. Therefore, the implementation of these punishments, while reducing the criminal population of prisoners and reforming them, provides better implementation of social justice and improvement of public trust, emotional and financial support for the families of criminals

In Southeast Asia, Aedes aegypti (L.) has been incriminated as principal vector of dengue viruses and Ae. albopictus as the secondary vector of dengue fever. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of three formulations of pyrethrin derived from Tanacetum cinerariaefolium against the dengue/dengue haemorrhagic fever vectors Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus in the laboratory. The testings employed 2 methodologies: the WHO Larval Bioassay and WHO Adult Bioassay. The results showed that all the three pyrethrin formulations had larvicidal and adulticidal activities. The impact of the sublethal doses of pyrethrin formulations on Aedes spp. larvae resulted in 4-6% of alive adult emergence compared to 90% of Ae. aegypti emerging adults and 96% Ae. albopictus alive adult emergence in the control. The impact of sublethal doses of the pyrethrin formulations caused very low fecundity on both Aedes spp. compared to the control (P< 0.05).

Nowadays new and safety pesticides have a significant importance on the integrated pest management in the world, so in this study we report the sublethal effects of imidacloprid on cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii) reproduction by demographic toxicology. These experiments were carried out at 25±1oC, 70 ± 5% RH and photoperiod of 16: 8(L:D). Leaf discs of cucumber immersed in the recommended concentration of the above mentioned insecticide and then located in the 5.5 cm diameter Petri dishes. A newly emerged adult female was released on the lower surface of each leaf discs. There after various parameters such as longevity, daily fecundity rate and the intrinsic rate of increase were recorded. Imidacloprid reduced adult longevity (4 days) compared to the control (16 days). Life expectation in control and imidacloprid treatment were 4.30 and 2.25 days respectively. Gross fecundity rate in imidacloprid treatment and control were 3.97 and 49.13 respectively. R0 were 13.52 and 1.45 in control and imidacloprid treatment respectively. The intrinsic rate of increase (rm) was 0.05 in imidacloprid and 0.26 in control that is reduced by 81% in imidacloprid treatment. These results show the significant effects of imidacloprid on the life table parameters of A. gossypii.

In the present study, sublethal effects of Metarhizium anisopliae (LC30) on Aphis gossypii were evaluated at three constant temperatures of 20, 25 and 30 º C, relative humidity of 65 ± 5% and a light period of 16h. Data analysis was performed using Age-stage two sex life table procedure. The lowest duration of immature stages for A. gossypii was estimated at 25 º C (4. 37 day). The highest recorded value for female longevity was also recorded at this temperature (16. 73 day). Different temperatures had significant effects on total fecundity of treated individuals with sublethal concentration of M. anisopliae and the lowest recorded value for this parameter was obtained at 30 º C (3. 60 nymph). Furthermore, sublethal effects of M. anisopliae on population growth parameters of offspring from treated individuals were also significantly different at temperatures tested. Since the recorded value of birth rate was dramatically lower than death ones at 30 º C, the estimated value for intrinsic rate of increase (r) showed a negative value (-0. 091 day-1) at this temperature. The estimated values of net reproductive rate (R0) at 20 and 30 º C (5. 46 and 0. 47 offspring/individual, respectively) were significantly lower than recorded value for this parameter at 25 º C (66. 29 offspring/individual). The results obtained revealed that temperatures of 20 and 30 º C significantly affect pathogenecity of M. anisopliae to A. gossypii. Our findings could increase the efficiency of M. anisopliae in management programs of different pests.

Habrobracon hebetor Say is an important ectoparasitoid of various lepidopterous larvae. In this study, lethal and sublethal effects of diazinon were evaluated on H. hebetor under laboratory conditions. The adults were exposed to fresh residue of the insecticide applied on glass plates at 26±1oC, 60±5% RH and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L: D) h. Based on the dose-response study, the LC50 value of diazinon was 6.38 mgr a.i. ml-1. In order to assess the sublethal effects of the insecticides, adult wasps were exposed to an LC30 of the insecticide and then the demographic parameters of live wasps were studied. The results showed that LC30 concentration of diazinon negatively affected the stable population and biological parameters (e.g., rm, l, DT, T, eggs laid, hatch rate). The sex ratio of H. hebetor offspring was not significantly affected by the insecticide treatment. The results indicated that diazinon has negative effects on demographic parameters of the parasitoid and semi-field and field tests seem to be necessary.

This research was carried out to investigate lethal and sublethal effects of commercial formulations of indoxacarb and lufenuron on survival, development and parasitism of Trichogramma brassicae Bezdenko under laboratory conditions (25±2oC, 60±5% RH, and 16:8 h L: D). Each insecticide was applied at four concenterations including 1000, 750, 500, and 250 ppm (i.e. at recommended field application rate and three lower concenterations) and their effects were studied through three exposure methods, including contaminating adult’s food (honey solution 10%) with insecticides, residual contact, and dipping parasitized host eggs (in pre-pupa stage of parasitoid) in insecticide solutions. The results showed that both insecticides significantly increased adults’ mortality and decreased their longevity, fecundity, and emergence rate in comparison to control, and these adverse effects, increased with increasing applied concenteration. The highest mortality (52.5±6 percent), shortest longevity (1.72±0.1 days), and lowest parasitism rate (14.7±0.97 percent) were observed in those parasitoids that fed on solution contaminated with indoxacarb 1000 ppm. Dipping parasitized host eggs in recommended field rates of indoxacarb and lufenuron adversely affected prepupa survival, and reduced adult emergence by 19.7 and 19.3%, respectively. According to the IOBC categories of toxicity, both insecticides were found to be "slightly harmful" when they ingested through contaminated honey solution, and "harmless" when adult parasitoids exposed to their residuals and prepupae dipped in their solutions. Therefore, these insecticides are recommended as nearly safe products in biological control programs of lepidopteran pests with T. brassicae.

Tuta absoluta is one of the most important pests of tomato in many countries. Emamectin benzoate (EB) is widely used in the control of lepidopteran pests, but there is sparse information available regarding its sublethal effects on T. absoluta. In this research, the lethal and sublethal effects of EB were investigated on T. absoluta under laboratory conditions. Acute toxicity bioassay was carried out on 2nd instar larvae using residue contact method. The LC50 value was 14. 50 mg a. i. L−, 1, for 24 h exposure time. LC10 and LC30 of the insecticide was used for sublethal effect study. The insecticide significantly extended the larval developmental time at LC30. Pupal weight, fecundity and longevity of female adults were decreased at both tested concentrations. However, the LC10 and LC30 of the insecticide had no significant effects on pupal period, egg hatchability, and male adults’,longevity at sublethal effect study. These results suggest that the sublethal effects of EB might affect pest population dynamics significantly by delaying its development, and decreasing its reproduction. Hence, this bioinsecticide can be used in integrated pest management program of T. absoluta if its efficacy proven under the field and greenhouse conditions.