Background: In the 21st century, the world has been facing several emerging viral epidemics. These viruses are divided into two categories, including emerging viruses and re-emerging viruses. Factors, such as climate change, global warming, and some eating habits will have irreversible effects on human, animal, and environmental ecosystems. These emerging or re-emerging infectious diseases have significant effects on the world economy and health. The peak of this type of infectious disease appeared in the 1980s with a viral epidemic called human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV). These emerging or recurring viruses have affected both livestock and humans. There is evidence that these emerging or re-emerging viruses, influenced by the environment and the human diet are also affected by climatic cultures. Therefore, it would be possible to identify the center areas for the emergence or re-emergence of these viral diseases. In this review article, it has been attempted to identify world resources and the way we should be prepared for a confrontation with these deadly viruses through the study of these epidemics, emerging, and re-emerging viruses, since the mutated viral infections may emerge and re-emerge in the near future. For this review study, the keywords, including COVID-19, Coronavirus, SARS-COV2, Influenza virus (H1N1), Zika virus, HIV1 virus, Hanta virus, Ebola, Influenza (H5N1), Nipah, Hendra, West Nile fever, SARS-COV1, MERS-CoV were collected in PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and other reputable databases.

Introduction: After World War II it was widely believed that human-kind was winning the battle with the microbial world due to the advent of safe and antimicrobial compounds against diseases, such as tuberculosis and typhoid; vaccines against polio, diphtheria and pertusis; vast improvements in public sanitation and water/food quality; and effective chemical pesticides to control insect vectors of disease. In 1969, an American surgeon (William H. Stewart) even declared to the congress that: "it is time to close the book on infectious diseases, declare the war against pestilence won.

Despite development of preventive and controlling strategies regarding infectious diseases, they are still considered as one of the most significant leading causes of morbidity and mortality, worldwide. Changes in humans’ demographics and behaviors, microbial and ecological alterations, agricultural development, international travels and susceptibility to infectious diseases have resulted in increased reports of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) and reemerging infectious diseases (RIDs) in various geographical areas. Because of the various types of geographic properties in Iran, substantial climatic variability, as well as unstable political situations and poor public health conditions in some of neighboring countries, EIDs and RIDs are serious public health problems; among them, zoonotic and drug resistant diseases are the most significant. Hence, this review provides an overview of the significant bacterial, viral and fungal EIDs and RIDs in Iran regarding their epidemiological aspects.

The emergence and re-emergence of pathogenic fungi pose a significant challenge, fueled by factors like increased immunosuppression and climate changes. Despite the development of new antifungal drugs and therapies, controlling these infections remains a pressing issue. Candida auris, a multidrug-resistant yeast, has caused invasive infections with high mortality rates in hospitals worldwide, with Iran experiencing a particularly high burden of invasive C. auris infections. The identification of new at-risk groups, rising prevalence of resistant infections, and the emergence of novel multidrug-resistant pathogenic fungi highlight the need for novel therapeutic approaches and effective prevention strategies. This review explores the potential of nanotechnology, an emerging field, in combating emerging fungal infections, such as C. auris, and re-emerging infections caused by Fusarium and Rhizopus species. We conducted a literature review of studies exploring nanotechnology-based approaches to control or inhibit these emerging and re-emerging fungal pathogens with a particular focus on Iran and globally, where antimicrobial resistance is a growing concern. Nanotechnology revolutionizes antifungal strategies with novel solutions. Nanoparticles (NPs) and nanomaterials possess unique properties, such as enhanced solubility, targeted delivery, and ROS generation, which can disrupt fungal cell membranes, inhibit biofilm formation, and prevent sporulation. Their tailored sizes, high surface-to-volume ratios, and customizable surface chemistries make them game-changing solutions to combat drug-resistant fungal infections and improve treatment outcomes. Numerous studies have demonstrated the ability of various NPs, including silver, metal oxide, and carbon-based nanomaterials, to inhibit the growth and virulence factors of C. auris, Fusarium, and Rhizopus species. These nanomaterials exhibit potent antifungal activities through mechanisms such as disrupting cell membrane integrity, inducing oxidative stress, and inhibiting fungal metabolic pathways.

2emerging biotechnologies contribute significantly to societal well-being by influencing social, economic, and health fields. Attitudes toward biotechnologies differ, in various situations and over time, based on new understanding and evidence. One issue always emphasized in the ethical evaluation of emerging technologies is their dangerous and problematic aspects for human life and well-being. Simultaneously, ethical assumptions can influence ethical decision-making toward employing these technologies, including liberty, technological optimism, determinism, the lifecycle, power, the form of life, technology neutrality, ambiguity, uncertainty, dual-use transformative potential, and the challenges that will be raised by them. For the ethical assessment of emerging technology, six principal methodologies are employed. The "principles-based approach" focuses on obtaining the intended goals rather than determining specific requirements, laws, standards, and obligations and avoids checklist design. The ethical principles raised by the principles-based approach are presented in this article, including risk-cost-benefit, adherence to individual rights, sustainability, naturalness, precautionary, trajectory, responsible stewardship, public beneficence, justice and fairness, democratic deliberation, and intellectual freedom.Finally, by presenting a conceptual model in applying the principles above in forming biotechnologies, eighteen operational recommendations are presented to facilitate the ethical evaluation and monitoring of emerging biotechnologies in the policy-making process in Iran.