LITERARY ARTS
Year:2014 | Volume:5 | Issue:2 (9)|Papers Count:12

Story is one of the important and influential literary genres that deserves to research on its structure and content. By study and analysis of a story, the reader could comprehend the contextual messages and change his attitude toward life and different issues. After defining of the social novel, the author tries to analyze plot and personification in novel of Tehran Makhuf and respond to the questions on the method employed for plot and personification by the author and analyze it from plot and its components such as conflict, suspension and resolution and compare the differences and similarities between old tales and modern novels.The plot of Tehran Makhuf is not so complex due to its subject and content and natural order of events dominates on artificial discipline and it has open plot. Of main elements of plot, conflict is more outstanding here. This novel is full of emotional and moral conflicts and there is no similarity with historical novels that describe good and bad conflicts. Cause and effect relationship is main element of plot that shadows on the story events. InTehran Makhuf, sometimes the author violates the principles and causes to imbalance in natural sequences of events, discomposing rational and experiential relationship, and takes action toward artificiality and unnatural suspension. In creating suspension by emphasis on incidences, Kazemi extremes in some cases and tries to found the story based on the considerable sequence of events and this conduct reduces quality of the story significantly and leads to imbalance in rational and acceptable discipline.Kazemi employs direct or reporting personification mostly. This novel lacks diversity in personage considerably. All characters speak in similar style and there is no particular speech style. The personification of Kazemi in Tehran Makhuf is interdependent in style of old tales and novel in European account. In some cases, he approaches to story characters specifications and in other cases, he distances from traditional personification due to familiarity with western countries particularly Russian and French writers. Indeed, it can be said that personification in Tehran Makhuf is passing from traditional to modern and western style. The characters of Tehran Makhuf are classified in two categories: the first category involves aristocrats and their purpose is power and wealth and prevention of any social shift. They are identified by traits like “reveler”, “hypocrite”, “stingy” and “rich”. The characters like Siyavash Mirza, F. Saltane, ShazdeK. and Ali Ashraf khan are in this group who are absolutely evil. The second category is identified by traits like “noble”, “loyal”, “sufferer “ and “patient” and they are common people. Characters like Farrokh, Javad, servant of Farrokh, Mahin and Efat are in this group and they are noble, humanely and good. The main and secondary personages are constant and static in this novel. They attend in the story without changing. All characters introduced by Kazemi in Tehran Makhuf are real and they reflect society realities. All the characters of this novel reflect historical and social realities of particular place and time.

Making harmony among language functions of story characters with their character types is one of the characteristics and advantages of modern and successful story writing. In traditional fictional literature in Iran (prose and verse), this point is not considered important and story characters, generally, speak in the voice of narrator or writer since there is the narrators statement on their speech, they are not the representative of their class and character type. Not paying attention to this subject, causes disorder in either making supposition of reality or personifying, which are both important principals of story telling.This study views from this point the story of Noon val-Ghalam of Jalal Al Ahmad who is a contemporary writer. The methodology is qualitative, and data collection is based on content–analysis and document- analysis. As Al Ahmad was one of the Iranian contemporary writers and was familiar with western and Iranian writers, it is expected that the language and way of describing story characters he made, be based on their social classes. But this study, by stating different proofs, shows that this writer ignores the relationship necessary for language functions and character type among characters in the story and because of the imposition of his knowledge, statement and political and social view, the independence of the protagonists in his story is not well-considered.The inflection of political and social thoughts of each writer among his works, is not a shortfall by itself, but representing of speeches in protagonists, in the way which is not in harmony with their characters, underestimates them as an instrument for specific social and political representatives. This not only displays the character like a personified ideas, but also distructs processing of fictional dialogue as an important element in storytelling. Since in each language people from different social groups, use almost the same vocabularies that identifies and belongs to their own group and class, it is suitable that this matter of fact be used in story works that are reflection of the society. But Al Ahmad by stating the intellectual and wise mentioning from tow "Mirza Benvis" in the story those who are commonly illiterate people and just they write daily letters and some simple documents, he refuses paying attention to this point. For example "Mirza Asadollah" the protagonist, in a part of story, replying to one of the guys and criticizing some of the magnanimous for having cooperation with might people states smartly:" every wise people with all their wisdom are the same as all other ordinary people. They were not innocent. All of them have once had a guilty and get the expiable (kafare) of the guilty.Aristotle deposited logic so that his followers, the poetic or the rhetoric, make excuses from his sins. Birooni by the water of Ma lel-Hend washed his hands of the blood of all who were killed by Mahmood. Khajeh Nasir tried to do ablution in his Ethics. And Nizam ol- Molk who was in nature a man like Khanlar-Khan who, when has found himself in predicament, asked the draft of his poems. All of these cases in my opinion are just like power parasites. They are like flees that are under the tail of a restive mule of power. The power which is based on oppression not justice. The power of justice is in the martyrs' speech. For this, I see the history through the eyes of martyrs, some like " Christ", "Ali", Halaj", "Sohravardi". Not on the view of what written by those who were powered from the government, and considered "Anoshirvan" as just, the man who poured hot lead in the throats of Mazdaks" That is clear, such speeches are not matched with the character of a "Mirza- Benvis". Al Ahmad's passion in politics, in criticizing leftist ideas and nativist tendencies of that juncture of his intellectual living, changes the story to an artificial exhibition of encountering different political and social thoughts and opinions which are not in harmony with the characters of the story.Bakhtin considers a novel, whose characters go along with the writers intention, as a failed novel. So it can be said, Al Ahmad to direct the characters along with his own intention and to represent sharp criticisms against opponent thoughts, destroyed the beauty and artistic aspect of the story. This basically referred to Al Ahmad's intention in his way of story writing. He employs the story to promote his social and political ideas, and was not much considerate about following the principals of story writing.The fact that Al Ahmad uses the techniques for telling funny and tricky stories confirms this issue.Al Ahmad during his intellectual life was one of the members of public enlighthened. The characteristics of these types is that they use their own specialized abilities to promote their thoughts in public society. Reading of "Noon val-Ghalam" makes obvious the fact in this regard, The story in which Al Ahmad has casted a shadow over its artistic and aesthetic aspect. And this makes the success of Al Ahmad in this work to be in doubt.

Figures of speech in addition to their aesthetic functions have different effects on words. Internal music is one of the effects of figures of speech which can play an important role in beautifying the word and its effect on the audience. The internal music comes with the use of verbal figures of speech. Figures that make words related by similarity or uniformity of vowels and consonants and create sensible alliteration. Categories of palilogy, alliteration, parallelism, pun and riming prose are among the figures of speech that play a major role in creating internal music of the poem. In this study, with a descriptive analytical approach, we discuss the roll of music making factors in Tamhidat as an example of prose poem. The language of Ein ol-Ghozat in Tamhidat is preachy and didactical and in an addressing mode. Despite the intensity and sharpness of his speech, he speaks simple language with his audience. However, his words are in some cases melodious that influences audience and increases its penetration in the listener. The music of his words is natural so the listener can feel it with his spirit and takes its effect. Well syntagmatic arrangement of words is one of his language features that is based on music and phonemes' melody. This music gives words importance and predominance and makes Tamhida's prose a kind of prose poem. Applying some of the subtle and tiny musical elements such as parallelism (paronomasia /pun) makes the music of book more effective and catching. In other words, harmony of sounds and synchronization through which prose becomes rhythmic and melodious is one of the aesthetic aspects of the mystical prose of Ein ol-Ghozat that arises from his word's music and special intonation, so as human nature accepts it and enjoys reading. This word music is found in the form of alliteration, pun, repetition, and meter in important parts of his speech that sometimes becomes close to prosodic meter. In Ein ol-Ghozat's prose without feeling prosodic meter by listener, a wave of intonation and meter dominates resulted from alliteration and rhyme, and proximity of the number of syllables in every symmetry and perhaps likeness and nearness of the number of syllables in all or parts of the symmetries.Repetition as a key element of the internal music is one of Ein ol-Ghozat's stylistic characteristic. Repetitions are seen in three forms in Ein ol-Ghozat languages. 1-Alliteration, this group consists of various kinds of pun, rhyme, repetition, etc. 2-Parallelism: Repetition of words or phrases. 3- Palilology: Repetition of word: This form is one of the most important and aesthetic repetition in Tamhidat that in addition to making prose integrated, is effective in conveying the concept and content of the message of Einol-Ghozat, as repetition of the words "Alas, " " O’ Friend, " and "O’ Dear" in several phrases has a great influence in stimulation of feeling and inculcation emotion in the reader.Alliteration: One of the most important aspects of aesthetics in the mystical prose of Ein ol-Ghozat are sound harmony and alliteration that can be mainly found in pun/ paronomasia and riming. Usage of rhyme in all Tamhidat is not in the same level.Wherever discussion is didactic and reasoning, it is not generally riming, but where the subject is stories and anecdotes and analogies or becomes emotional, usually is riming.One manifestation of this figure is short sentences and aphorisms, whether the word is quotation of an old or an important person or whether the author expresses his own word.Apart from these, Ein ol-Ghozat has worked other ways to enrich his word's music. The most important of these methods are: • Bringing words that at least their initials are co-voiced. Such as: "Ebtela" and "Emtehan"• Phonemes processing: a kind of internal music is repetition and sameness of consonants and vowels. This figure in some cases, with creating a specific internal music, highlights the phrases and helps to conveying the message and gives pleasure to the audience.• Bringing together words that make a pun is another species of alliteration in the language of Ein ol-Ghozat. This figure of speech is one of the best examples of creating and enhancing music in words or sentences.• Bringing together the co-meter terms is one of other species of alliteration in Tamhidat.• Repetition of words or phrases, are of those categories that is used in the mystical prose of Ein ol-Ghozat and is one of the stylistic features and music making elements of his Word. Repetition in Ein ol-Ghozat's language, sometimes have artistic and rhetorical aspects that helps his prose being rhythmic and is effective in conveying the meaning and intention of the speaker. Ein ol-Ghozat while repeats thoughts and beliefs of the mystics, repeats words and combinations in the various types, so that he not only raises the words' musical level and makes it melodious, but also increases the rhythmic role of his own speaking. Sometimes this repetition in the form of word or phrase in the end of sentence comes symmetrically, it functions like radif in hemistiches and if in the terms of syllables number be long, makes an intonation in the words too.

The intensity of emotion and fluctuation of meaning in the poet's mind causes him to go beyond the ordinary language and convey intellectual and emotional meanings through metaphors, similes and linguistic preparations. He has sharp eyes and a sensitive spirit and creative temperament and attempts strengthening his own literary language and creating personal style by inventing novel images, showing the creativity and imagination and entering in various arenas of imagination. This point more than anything else could be done by presenting images and new figures. Perhaps in the sixth century, and especially in Azerbaijani school, more than other periods, poets have been looking for creating innovative style in eloquence. Their major attempts were mainly in imaging, a wide field that they have competed. It is obvious that in this illustration the alphabet letters would be very helpful.Khaghani's Divan of poetry, as one of the greatest poets of this school, is the perfect poetical book of paintings in which meaning has been hidden under a delicate pattern and new different scientific, cultural and religious images. Letters are a broad range of elements that put a new field in front of the poet and he is aware of the potential features of the letters, new images, and artistic creativity techniques as well.This paper shows descriptive - analytical study of various aspects of Khaghanis poetry and frequency of letters in the alphabet letters, alphabetic-based authenticity of images, different similarity reasons, semantic and literal multi-relevance of letters in the context of poetry, producing figures of speech based on letters, sensational relationship exists between images and letters which have been shown in his poetry.Letter have a double and even multiple application in Khaghani's poetic works (divan) and moreover the construction of words and conveying meaning which is the real and common usage, they were used as artistic instruments with a new essence.There is a world in the heart of every letter, word and morpheme lies in the poet's point of view is not the last and smallest part of speech, but it is a starting point for the imagination of the poet, to the extent that his sharp and sensitive eye sees a world in every letter.Accordingly, this study includes some of the functions and artistic aspects of letters created novelty and authentic style in Khaghani's poetry.Auditory and visual aspect (letters of a specific word or appearance of a letter and its resemblance to other things such as the shape of "teeth" and "mouth", shape of letter "s" or "a" and "spear" and "arrow"), the semantic aspect of the letters, numerical aspect of letters, inspiring from the separated letters of Quran, the aesthetic aspect of letters (respecting figures of speech, syllable, allegory, ambiguity, metaphor, simile etc.) In general it can be said that the letters have a lot of potential capacity in poetry and Khaghani as a creative poet and modernist is aware of the power of words well and could use skillfully this power in the artistic context of his poetry.

According to researchers, radifs can be one of the main components of the ancient Persian poetry made by Iranian talent and muse. Radif as one of the pillars of the side music, has played a major role in classical Persian poetry, and Persian poets have shown great attention to composing radif-consisting poems, since ancient times. In the early Persian poetry, radif is used slightly but the more the Persian poetry completed, the more application of radif have seen, and gradually, poets intended to use simple types instead of those complicated.One of the poets who have shown special attention to using radif and its application forms are of high-frequency in his poems, is khaghani. In this essay, we have tried to analyze Khaghani's poem statically. For this purpose, we have provided accurate statistics of the radif-consisting poems and those are not radif-consisting. We studied various types of radifs in all khaghani's Divan as well. Then it is proved that the frequency of his radif-consisting poems is higher than the other with no radif.Statistical analysis shows that 815 of 1212 khaghani's poems consist radifs.This number equals 20/68% of his all poems. Study of radif in different form showes that poem with radif appreciably are more predominant than poems without radif.81.77% of Ghazels, 39.64% of odes, 88.54% of quatrains/rubais, 22.64% of fragments and 66.79% of his small odes have radif. The types of radif in Khaghani' s poem includes: verb, noun (noun phrase), letters, adverbs, pronouns, adjectives and phrases, or sentences (such as overnight). But the verb type (70%) is mostly used in his poetry. In this article we discussed the functions of radif in khaghani' poems and concluded that the main functions of radif in his poetry are as follows: 1- Creating unity between poet and audience When the reader can guess the word (or phrase) in a particular situation, he will find himself as a contributor in composing poet.2- coordination of radif with theme and motif Coordination of radif and poetry is of high importance in view of the great poets such as khaghani. Of course, creating such a figure seems to be elaborate especially in long odes. Keeping this coordination needs a strong sense and high capacity that khaghani have.3- Creating new figures of thoughts and speeches Repeatition of radifs in Khaghani's poem created new themes and combinations.Forozanfar says: "khaghani is among the great poets of Iran in inventing of combinations and pleasant ironies" (Forozanfar, 1384: 617) 4- Foregrounding an image or theme One of the aims of radif is foregrounding; the poet repeat a word, theme or image in order to highlight and make it important. Special position of radif in the end of poem and the pause after or before it increases emphasis and focus on it.5- Inducing the interior sense of poem Poet sometimes repeats a word or phrase in the poem sequence and aims at inducing an interior sense to the audience. Sadness, happiness, hope, hopelessness, and any other senses are conveyable through these repetitions.6- Unifying thought and imagination Poet with the help of radif leads the poem to a unique thought, for example, khaghani in one poem selected word "safahan" as radif to highlight it, and establish poetic concepts about this city until the end as well.7- Strengthening the music of poetry Musical function of radif is featured in khaghani's poem and he used these radifs beautifully with the aim of making his poem melodious and musically rich.8- Creating visual pleasure Sometimes the writing form of radif in khaghani's poem− specially in the long noun and verb type of radifs− creates a visual balance and pleasure for reader.At the end, we should say that the Divan of poetry of any poet (except for Mowlavi) is not like khaghani' s, because of containing diverse images and new radifs.

One of the most fundamental acts of historiography is to classify historical information in diachronic axis. The method of this classification or periodization shows the theoretical approach of the historian and determines the structure and the form of his history. Because of multiple criteria of analysis and various literary genres, periodization in literary history is more complicated than that of general history. We can distinguish two approaches in periodization of literary history, although these can be used together: extrinsic or social cultural approach (based on criteria extrinsic to literature) and intrinsic or formalist approach (based on criteria intrinsic to literature).Then periodization in literary history can be formulated in different methods and may be based upon various criteria: chronological such as century, decade and year, organic patterns of evolution, great poets and writers, literary emblems and evaluations of every period, events, concepts and periods of general or political history, analogy of literary history and history of ideas or history of arts, approaches and styles of language, dominant literary norms.These methods actually are used together and everyone has adequacy in special kind of literary history. In periodization of Persian contemporary literature, some methods and models current in periodization of poetry have been applied identically to periodization of prose. Periodization based upon century, decade and year is the simplest and most mechanical method but sometimes certain centuries in some countries have symbolic and stylistic meaning, and decades were used often for subdivisions of literary history, especially nowadays with fast rhythm of literary change.Periodization according to organic patterns of evolution equates the changes of literary history with the life phases of an organism, and offers an account of birth, mature and death (and sometimes re-birth) of literary genres, but this method have been under question because the rhythm of literary change always does not follow smooth and coherent patterns. Now periodization based on great writers and poets is not current but still is the favorite method of periodization in high school textbooks of Iran. Periodization based upon literary slogans and movements often is used for subdivisions of literary history. In periodization of Persian literature, this method has been used rarely.Most of stories of Persian literature derive divisions of their subject-matter from general or political history. In these cases, the periods have symbolic meaning, and describing their traits, the literary historian considers mere literary criteria. Periodization in terms of some ideas derived from history of art and thought has its supporters and further opponents. Yet some concepts like Renaissance, Baroque and Mannerism have come from history of art to literary history.Seeking literary autonomous history, some literary historians accept dominant norms a base of periodization. Yet there is some disagreement in nature of dominant norms and on the other hand, the unity ascribed to literary periods is incomplete and relative.Different methods of periodization often are used simultaneously in periodizing a literary history. This combination of methods can be seen in names of literary periods. Names of literary periods come from different origins.

One of the most significant elements in contemporary story writing is character and characterization. Character in a narrative or a play, is a person that his mental and moral qualities reflect in his deeds, speeches and acts. Creating such real-like characters in a story or a novel is called characterization (Mir Sadeghi, 1382: p 85). In this article, character and characterization in one of the novels about the eight year war between Iran and Iraq, calling “Palms and Men”, is investigated. Character types, methods of characterization, character appearance, prototype, the relation of character with other elements, and characterization defects are some of the subjects studied in this article.Character types: These characters are generally categorized in two groups of stereotype and type. Samir, Touraj, Reza, Hamid etc. who all belong to Sepah forces are type characters. Some women characters such as Zeinab, Samir’s mother, Kolsoum, Hanieh's mother etc. are stereotype characters.Methods of characterization in Palms and Men novel: The description of characters is done in two methods by Mr. Ne' matollah Soleimani: a) Direct characterization: If not all the characters, most of them are certainly characterized in this way. For example, in expressing Hamid's characteristic who is the commander of the mission, he writes, “Hamid didn't bat an eyelid in any incidents. Hamid was lion-hearted” (Soleimani, 1380: 128). In describing uncle Heidar, he writes, “wisdom and insight, and the effects of years of suffering, difficulty, and experiencing could be clearly seen in his limpid eyes. The rural man was indeed a wise and experienced man” (Ibid: 264_265).b) Indirect Characterization: Although in novels and long stories, direct characterization method is often used, in “Palms and Men” this kind of characterization is also appeared in different conversations, stream of consciousness, deeds and behaviors, appearance descriptions and names. For instance, the inner personality traits of a character such as Colonel Nowrouzi, who in the writer's eye is a courageous, adept warrior while being a disciplined, adamant commander, is reflected in his conversation with the captain. “Colonel we wish you returned behind the lines, we would take you to the field hospital. Again the voice was broken up and after a few seconds the colonel’s voice could be heard, it seemed he was arguing with the soldiers around him. “I won’t withdraw. I tell them too that I won’t return behind the lines… until God willing I make these bastards withdraw for 5 to 6 kilometers tomorrow morning, I won’t move away from here” (Ibid: 173). Or in describing the appearance of characters, most southern characters are described as being brunette, skinny and tall, such as Samir (the main character), Mahmoud, Reza, Hamid, Touraj etc. “Samir was tall and so skinny that it seemed you could always see his profile. He was dark skinned and had a bony body” (the same: 175).Prototypes can be categorized in different types, including religious, historical, political, social classes, epic, literary prototypes etc. In this novel the characters are categorized in 3 categories of religious, political, and social classes’ prototypes.Because of belonging to the type of “Holly Defense” soldiers and being martyred, the characters of this novel have religious prototype. And the time president’s character (Bani Sadr) is a political and historical prototype in this novel. Social classes’ prototype can be seen in Zarkhedr and Zar Abdozahra characters.The relation of character with some story elements: Point of view, time, and theme are the story elements that have affected on better description and process of the characters. By choosing third person point of view, description of characters by omniscient narrator, selection of war period of time, description of real characters at that time, theme of frontage, and liberation of Khoram Shahr, the relation of this theme in deeds and dialogues of characters, the writer better introduces and processes them.Character appearance a) External indicators: Job, gender, and age are external indicators that the writer introduces his story characters using them. In this novel the characters are normally young men who belong to “Sepah” troops, which is consistent with the theme and plot of the story and the characters dialogues, thoughts, feelings, and psyche are based on this.b) Internal indicators: Internal indicators are used to describe the characters are the characters' emotional and spiritual matters, their thoughts and aptitudes, for example Samir's (the main character) fear of death which is an emotional and spiritual matter is described as: “Samir suffered from a great anxiety, he knew in a vague way that this dreadful worry is caused by fear of death. The consecutive days of fight and flight had wrecked him mentally and spiritually” (Soleimani, 1380: 106).Also, reasoning of uncle Heidar about war and his eyes that see the appearance of things in another way is narrated as: “The old man said that war is simple as well as a hard subordination of God. Escaping from that is not possible. The ones who escape from the war are actually escaping from themselves. What do they know about the reality of life? You that are in the heart of war have perceived reality if you approach it with a pure, pleased and satisfied soul. He said how great it is to love and to have unshakable faith (the same: 266).The defects of characters in this novel One of the things that has defected the plot of the story is irregular appearing and disappearing of characters. During the story the author repeatedly brings some characters into the scene and takes them out without introducing them and just mentioning them so briefly by their names in a way it seems to be a diary rather than a novel. Another problem is about Hanieh that the writer does not mention her previous studies in nursing but in different parts in the story she is pictured as a skillful nurse and being busy with this job. Also, Zarkhedr, Hanieh's father, is totally disagreed with Samir and Hanieh’s marriage but in the first 100 pages of the story without any logical reason he agrees with their marriage and gives them a power of attorney to wed, while such a revolution requires time and adequate background. The characters are introduced in a direct method while today readers prefer to read between the lines and indirectly discover the inner part of the characters and analyze them. Direct method presentation is necessary for clearness and thrift but it is not ever adequate.Results: In general, this study shows that besides direct description of the characters during the series of events in this novel, the author introduces characters through conversations, behaviors, deeds, thoughts, even description of appearance although slightly. Gender, age, name, even the logic that the author presents about the characters and the coherent relation between the characters and other elements of the story such as theme, time, place, etc. have a great role in firm basis of the story

Simile as the main element of imagination has a leading function in the creation of various types of poetic images. Seif Farghani is an image maker poet who, via the aid of this element, takes step in the field of innovative and fantastic image making. In this research, the similes of Seif Farghani's odes, are investigated from different aspects like types of simile, materials of simile, new similes, simile instruments and their static and dynamic nature. Finally their statistical analysis has been presented so that, in addition to knowing how to employ expressive instruments to create poetry and their impact on the poet's style and language, the basic criteria of Seif Farghani's poetry aesthetics would be presented to the reader.This study proves that, though Seif has made use of all forms of imagination, the similes of his odes are of a different type, concerning the frequency and innovation, so that, regarding 3019 similes found in 125 odes, it is claimed that Seif Farghani is an image maker poet who has employed this element more than other elements of imagination in making imagery. In order to achieve a specific speech and style and creating novelty in imagery, he generates novel similes and, with a commitment to difficult nominal rhymes and placing them as one of simile sides, innovates new images.Variety of elements used in Seif's similes shows the breadth of the poet's scientific and intellectual scope in various fields. Comparing all parts of tenor and vehicle in respect to simile materials indicates that, in vehicle, the highest frequency has been dedicated to spiritualities and the lowest frequency to the historical and mythological elements. Similarly, in the investigation of vehicles of his odes, the highest frequency is devoted to objects and the lowest frequency to this world and hereafter.High frequency of singular to singular simile denotes brevity and innovation as well as rich, smooth and delicate language of the poet. The frequency of bound simile is not infrequent. This may indicate the point that the poet, in order to reflect his own poetic images and also renew his trite and banal similes, has bounded the tenor or the vehicle to give emphasis to them. And, in fact, he makes his simile more prominent that is of special techniques of powerful poets especially those of Seif Farghani.Although the employment of compound simile in the poet's poems signals their high power of combining and simulating several images, its trivial use in Seif's poet is not the result of his inability.However, it shows that he has a simple mind and prefers to utilize artistic similes and innovative images away from complexity and extreme ambiguity so as to achieve his mystic and social purposes. But this very low frequency of the poet's compound similes is also innovative, new and nice. Seif's extensive similes have a higher frequency than his intensive similes. Among the extensive similes, the detailed tenor has got the highest frequency.Since Seif wants to convey eminent messages and concepts to the audience, he avoids what causes ambiguity and complexity in form and meaning, unless discourse requires it. The frequency of eloquent simile, particularly analogous simile (intensive simile), is enormous in Seif Farghani's odes, so that we sometimes encounter immense number of images which, in turn, requires us to name him as the most image maker among the poets.Despite the fact that Seif Farghani lived in seventh and early eighth century, depending on the poetic template of the ode, the frequency of sensory to sensory similes is more than his other similes. Since his odes is composed of social, moral and mystic themes as well as advice, as a result, the frequency of rational similes exceed that of sensory similes compared with other two types. The similes of sensory to rational and rational to rational are of low frequency. Because receiving the point of resemblance is understood sooner than the sensory vehicle and occurs easier. In this regard, his poetry is like other poets following Araqi's style.As to the formal structure, the poet has more tendencies towards reduced simile. This form of simile, because of the number and contention of the images, is considered as the most imaginative and artistic type of simile. The images in his poems are more static rather than dynamic. Due to the angle of simile and their novelty and obsolescence, the innovative and strange similes (the simile with open-angle) allocate around one-third of Seif Farghani's similes. And the rest are repeated similes, a sample of which is found in works of other poets before him.

Ghalib Dehlavi is considered as the best-known thirteenth century Indian poet. This Muslim writer and researcher, originally is from Touran with Eibak Turk ancestors. Mirza Asad ollah Ghalib Dehlavi is a pioneer of new styles in Urdu poetry. His poems are written in Urdu as well as Persian. Apart from his elaborate prose, Dehlavi's odes and lyrics denote the poet’s noble thoughts and lofty nature. In spite of such traits and amazing proficiency in writing Persian poems, though a non-Persian speaker, the man has remained unknown or ignored in Iran. The present paper seeks to make orientations to Ghalib Dehlavi by examining the meters of his Ghazels.Making references to the Indian style, the paper offers a typology and a computational account of meters as used in Ghalib's poems. It is found that 20 different meters are employed to versify a totality of 334 ghazels of which 85 percent are in only six meters. These six happen to be so frequently used in Persian too.The most frequent meter used by Ghalib is ‘mafoolon faelaton mafaelon faelon’. Highly employed in Persian ghazels too, this meter is so capable of expressing the intended concepts. ‘Mafaelon faalaton mafaelna falon’ is another meter of his interest used more frequently in his anthology than in Persian poetry. The meter ‘mafoolon mafaelon mafaelon faolon’, vastly used by Saadi and Hafiz, also appeals to Ghalib.Ghalib’s application of the octave meters ‘ramal’ and ‘hazaj’, which sound so grave in Persian, suggests his tendency for the Indian style in poetry. However, the rise and fall in the frequency of certain meters in his Divan (complete works) may be viewed as an indication of a retreat from his previously practiced literary style. The only rare meter in Ghalib’s poems is ‘faelaton mafoolon faelaton mafoolon’ first tried in Attar’s ghazels. This meter has also been tried by Hafiz, Khajou Kermani, Saeb, Kalim, Feyz Kashani, and Bidel Dehlavi. The meter has given a stylistic flavour to Ghalib’s poems. Length, gravity, and divisibility into two pieces characterize the meters popular with him. The average frequency of these meters in his poems is higher than that in the Indian style.

From the perspective of rhetorical word, a symbol is a phrase or a sentence that has an apparent meaning. Moreover, it inspires the reader a wide range of meanings. Since expressing the complicated social and political ideas and indirect reflection of social and political thoughts is easier if done symbolically, so the symbol and symbolism- especially in Persian literature and specifically in the realm of Persian poetry- have had a special appearance. In addition to the factors mentioned, in the contemporary literature, paying attention to defamiliarization in literary works and the emergence of particular schools interested in ambiguity, have increased the range of symbolization. More especially, the symbol has all the features of artful ambiguity, and it is one of the major factors causes ambiguity in the poem. Thus, giving exact definitions and contemplating on symbols of contemporary poetry could resolve the ambiguity of them and help the reader to distinguish between similar figures, that is, coded kennings and symbol-like metaphors.In literature, especially in language of poetry, the inability of language to reflect obscure mystical ideas, avoiding direct expression of political and social concerns of the reader in the course of participation with an aim of creating ambiguous literary works is the main motivation towards symbol and symbolization. According widespread use of symbol and its different species can be viewed from different perspectives. The creation of ambiguity is the main purposes of using symbols (especially in contemporary poetry), so the efforts of many poets to achieve this goal have caused formation of similar symbols. The explanation and resolution of this issue can open new window for understanding the poetry in front of the audience.This paper examines the ambiguity of symbols in terms of its precise boundaries.Ambiguity is one of the important and key processes in the Iranian poetry, or in a better word, today poetry. In such poetry ambiguity is a necessity to explore the new world or from a different perspective, it is the result of this complex world. In general, in Persian poetry there are three types of ambiguity such as: nonessential ambiguity, intentional and unintentional ambiguity.An effective literary texts, owes its origin to creation of multiple meanings and spreading its levels of meaning. One of the serious differences between literary work with other linguistic works is the plurality of meaning. Richness and depth of literary texts and creation a range of meanings, is the result of ambiguity. In this respect, engaging the reader in creating meaning will make a typical interaction between the audience and the text. Ambiguity provides opportunities for deep thinking and reacting of reader, so takes reader beyond freedom of the text within its borders and freedom of thought has to be brought for its reader.Having interaction between text and reader in the history has caused different reactions and multiple conversations with generations. This process has been interpreted as dynamicity of the literary work. The ambiguity of the poem is creating by the symbols and symbolism. So the symbol is a rhetorical element suggests the reader the apparent meaning, in addition to a wide range of meaning. In classical Persian works ambiguity in text is created indifferent forms such as kenning and metaphor and code. Today, symbol is burdening this task mostly.In past, allegory in terms of clarity divided to the four categories: Allusion, gesture, code and innuendo. Those kennings are considered as codes that vehicles are hidden in them, and perception of their meaning is difficult and sometimes impossible. So, in this case, code should be considered as a mark or word. Also there are metaphors due to their newness and uncertain senses to support new meaning according to the traditional meaning and appearance of metaphors (i.e. not considering true and apparent meaning), with multiple figurative meanings takes readers to the border of suspicion of doubt about symbols. These metaphors generally are divided into two categories: metaphors that are close to the symbol and symbols that have been decoded. Since the nature of symbol is fundamentally ambiguous and multiple causes dynamicity and depth of literary work. Poets- especially today poets - try using symbols and symbolic terms in their work or even take steps in symbolization. The scope of this paper consists of the concept of true symbols and similar ones such as coded kennings and symbol-like metaphor.As noted above, "ambiguity" is the main goal of a symbol, especially in today poetry, where the poet hides his purpose and expression in cover of meaning and makes the audience confused. Although other rhetorical elements, such as metaphor and allegory, pave the way for reaching this goal, because of signs (which lead the reader to the original meaning) cannot be as ambiguous as symbol and by semantic flexibility force reader to think deeply. Therefore, poets' efforts to connect metaphor and kenning to symbol for reaching a higher level of ambiguity, put issues like coded kennings and symbol-like metaphors in front of real symbols.