LITERARY ARTS
Year:2010 | Volume:1 | Issue:1|Papers Count:8

Rhetorical figures have been the focus of rhetoricians' attention since the ancient era; they have also classified these figures differently. Even before division of rhetorical devices into three branches of meaning, expression and rhetoric, this attention has been prevalent. Among others Ibn-e Motaz, Qodamat, Ibn-e Rashiq and Ibn-e Sanam Khafaji did some studies in this area. After differentiating Sciences of Rhetoric from one another, in the 7th century, Sakaki divided rhetorical figures into figures of speech and figures of thought. In the contemporary era, there are other classifications which are based on the past ones, except for some additional points which is the outcome of recent linguistic discoveries. Modern poetry, and the figures of speech employed in it, has drawn our attention to another classification that is the division of figures of speech on the basis of their associations (similarity, contiguity, and opposition).After studying the historical classifications, this article attempts to classify the figures of speech on the basis of various classifications of associations.

Satirists, usually use literary language fused with lingual innovation, intricacy and elegance, so that the effect of satire will be doubled; thus, the more defamiliarized a satire is, the stronger is its effect on the audience. Here, it seems that some characteristics such as brevity and condensation of sentences, plainness of expression, diction, colloquial expressions, hyperbolic expressions, word-plays and some devices and techniques like estrangement and defamiliarization, surprise, hysteron proteron (chiasmus) and paradox, or reconciliation of the opposites, along with other underlying eloquence are effective in formation of caricalamatures, satire, irony and humorous language using common traditional figurative speech methods-methods which result from search in the unlimited and hidden potentialities of language.In this research, the investigation of caricalamatures, satire and humorous language has been performed based on a descriptive-analytical approach which not only leads to the acquaintance with some idiosyncratic features of this genre, but also makes the appreciation of such works possible. These characteristics are seen in other caricalamaturists' language with little difference. But, besides his being an avant-garde, what marks Shapoor's satiric language as outstanding among other caricalamaturists is the tremendous influence he has left on the authors of his next generation.

Hafez's poetry, despite its structural coherence, appears to be incoherent and fragmented. Some opponents, then, based on this surface appearance  have criticized Hafez since each line of his ghazals contains an independent point; some have also used this quality as a pretext to invalidate his main themes; or they have separated the lines to diminish and neutralize the stinging bitterness of his critical comments. However, today, regardless of such controversial views, this independence of the lines has been considered as Hafez's craft and art.The present article, after discussing the roots of emergence of such diverse criticism, has dealt with the vital structural coherence of Hafez' ghazals interpretively posing one example from each of his mystic, witty love ghazals and clarifying the co-relationship among those lines.

Some of the figures of speech in Persian language are those that show the rhetorical value of the bilingualism. Tarjema (translation), Molama (bilingual poem), Dhuloghatayn (readable by two languge), Eghtebas (borrowing), Darj (insertion), are these figures of speech. Unfortunately, in rhetorical sources and books, the aesthetic values of these figures have not been explained. However, the aesthetic aspects of these figures can be shown through several theories that discuss code switching; considering the fact that some of the theories are commonly used in literature and literary criticism. Therefore, in this essay, it is shown that from these figures, Eghtebas (borrowing) has a higher literary value and importance than others. Moreover, the literary significance of this figure is revealed through several theories.

Salaamaan and Absaal is a mysterious story that has been being passed around with several narratives and versions. Jaami has composed a poem based on one of these narratives by the Hanin-e Ibn-e Iss-haq, translated from Greek to Arabic in the third Hijri century (9th century A.D.). His interpretations of the story’s mystical secrets had occupied the minds of so many commentators such as “Khajeh Nassir-e Toosi”. Jaami, based on this philosophical interpretation by Khajeh Nassir, offered a rather mystical but short interpretation of the mysteries of this story at the end of his poem. In this article, we intend to provide a different analysis of the mysteries of this story based on the ancient frameworks discussed in Jung’s psychology. Karl Gustav Jung was the founder of the Psychoanalysis and archetypal criticism who combined his psychological perspectives with Hermetic, Gnostic, and the Indian notions. Since the original story is Greek, an Indian influence on the story is conceivable; and the ancient frameworks of Jung in analyzing the mysteries will be very revealing.

Bidel Dehlavi (1644 A.D./1054 A.H.-1721 A.D./1133 A.H.) was one of the most famous Persian poets of India and the greatest poet in Indian branch of a style well-known as Sabk-e Hendi (Indian Style). However, his poems have not sufficiently been studied in Iran.Meter is one of the basic elements and most effective one in poetry. Therefore, examining the quality of its meter could be one of the basic steps in interpreting and evaluating a poem.Most of Bidel-readers and Bidel-scholars consider his ghazals as the most valuable product of his wit. Furthermore, according to its history and lyrical nature, ghazal pattern has a closer connection with music and the function of meter in ghazal form is more prominent than that of the others. For this reason, in the present study, first the meters of this poet's ghazals have been introduced and then they are compared with current meters of Persian ghazal and those of the eleventh (A.H.) century. Finally, the metrical features of his ghazals are determined as follows:Bidel composed 2858 ghazals in 32 different meters, six of which were the most frequent ones in all Persian ghazals and in the eleventh (A.H.) century. In this way, Bidel, whose poems are famous because of their different and unusual quality, significantly conforms four fifth of his ghazals to the standard and thus they are considered "ordinary". But one can see some creativity and experimentation in the meters which are relatively less frequent meters: among the five less frequent meters in Persian poetry, Bidel composed from 1 to 56 ghazals in those meters and 4 ghazals in one meter which, according to the current evidence, there was not such an example known in Persian classical poetry at all.

In Persian, the verb is classified based on different points of view. An important classification is based on the structure and components of a verb.Grammarians have introduced at least two kinds of verb: simple and complex. Some grammarians, however, have enumerated a variety verb types. Phrasal verb is a kind of verb being formed of at least three parts, named on the basis of structure. It has one single meaning. In recent decades, this kind of verb is called phrasal verb by some grammarians, while others have rejected this kind of verb or have not named it at all. This article first discusses the views on the classification of verb; then it focuses on the history of designation of phrasal verb, on its record in ancient texts, on its structure and kind, on its functions, and finally on the similarities and differences between phrasal verb and complement. Finally, part of the article introduces an almost complete list of phrasal verbs.

Proverbs along with metaphors, idioms, axioms and expressions are among the materials whose quality and quantity contribute to the enrichment of every language. In this article, the objective is, after defining it, to deal with this lingual category in two lexical and syntactic levels.In the lexical level, the proverbial terms and lexicon will be investigated from different angles.1. The usage frequency of alien, folkloric, or common terms, determined via the samples extracted from well-known proverbs, show that 14.4 percent is Arabic, two percent common and folkloric and about one percent others like "Shekasteh". Such studies are carried out comparatively to convey the frequency of the mentioned lexicon compared to the standard prose and other literary forms like legends, lullabies and proverbs.2. Prohibited or taboo words form 2.75 percent of the total lexicon.3. In the part of lingual advantage of proverbial terms, the function of proverbial lexicon and its influence on durability of Persian terms and in lingual studies are discussed.4. Transformation and displacement of the terms in substitutive level is one of the features of proverbs whose causes will be studied in details.In syntactic level, issues like proverbial expressions, the constituents of proverbial expressions and their sequence, verbal types, structure and mode will be studied.Moreover, omission of constituents of proverbial expressions in eight grammatical types will be examined by presenting adequate evidence and also the quality and kinds of these omissions will be determined. In the end, the written and verbal categories will be rendered.The methodology is descriptive-analytical based on the samples and case studies. 50 proverbs from five recorded proverbial sources in standard Persian have been provided. Therefore, spoken cases have not been included in this research.