Historical Sciences Studies
Year:2013 | Volume:4 | Issue:2 (6)|Papers Count:8

There have been many differences on the subject of literacy or illiteracy of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) for a long time. Many have said that he was not able to read or write throughout his life.They ratiocinate depending on the words of (أمی) and (أمیین) in Holy Quran, meaning illiterate in dictionaries, or the story of the treaty of Hudaybiyya. This can be considered as an unacceptable argument. There are others, however, who reasonably believe the Prophet was able to write and read. The Prophet's illiteracy can be assessed from the points of his Holiness spiritual dignity, Quranic verses, narratives, rationality and natural courses. A research on Quranic verses and narratives, and intellectual thoughts makes it clear that the Holy Prophet was able to read and write as well.

Undoubtedly Achamenids, as the greatest empire of ancient periods that tried to preserve its internal security and defend its frontiers, needed the help of their appointed governors who were usually elected from among Achaemenid families. Besoos, who was one of Achaemenids, was appointed as a governor on east (Bacteria). Besoos dismissed and killed Darius III and claimed himself as the emperor instead When Alexander attacked the empire. But his kingdom did not last for a long time due to his excessive reliance upon military forces, mistreatment to his friends and subordinates, and misuse of his strategic position that led to economic, social, military and political instabilities. So he was arrested and killed near Damghan by the order of Alexander. Depending on research sources, this paper is going to survey the mutations of late Achaemenid era concentrating on Besoos and his role to answer the following question: "What factors and incentives brought him to power and eventually made him fall soon?

Neglecting their personal financial affairs, even their individual costs, Iranian parliamentarians started to eliminate their country's political, social and economic problems, by the establishment of the first round of their national parliament. But they instantly encountered serious challenges due to the lack of resources to cover the costs of their individual lives and their official duties. So they decided to determine a similar resource as an urgent priority. Regarding the country's disturbed economic situation in that period, the main question of present study is this: "Was the financial office of lranian first national parliament successful in covering its members' costs or not?"

The expansion of Shiite activities in Iraq and its development through Sunni nomads is one of the main issues involved Ottoman governors in the second half of the nineteenth century, during the reign of Abd al-Hamid II. (1876-1909). Numerous real or unreal reports about the political and cultural risks of these activities were sent by officials of Baghdad to Bab-i Ali in Istanbul, forced the central government to take precautionary policies. Iraq's adjacency to Iran, as the only Shiite political competing power against Ottoman Empire with its strategic geopolitical importance, made the problems of Iraqi Shiites more complicated. Islamic Union, as Abd al-Hamid's main internal and foreign policy, and also the presence of a variety of religious minorities like Shiites living within the borders of Ottoman Empire, were other factors that increased these complexities. The dimensions of Shiite activities development and the nature of Ottoman policies and their results are going to be analyzed in this paper, based on historical documentary sources, especially on the Ottoman archive.

Urban areas formation and development are considered as the main symbols of prosperity. In the early nineteenth century, when there the global evolution was at its astonishing rate and cities, with their active economic elements, found an outstanding role, Iranian society involved internal crisis. This not only ended the political and economic role of cities in important interactions off but also showed the important position of Iranian tribes which forced cities to obey their conditions. Therefore, the cities just descended to elements fulfilling the economic needs of the people. In this paper, we are to analyze the military challenges of urban areas as well as Karim Khan's attitude toward them.

Majd ai-Islam Kermani was an intellectual clergyman and outstanding journalist of constitution period who spent his life on serving his country. He fought Qajar despotic government, writing several articles in newspapers especially Adab, even to be exiled to Kalat. But after the constitutionalists got victory and the new government established, he published four newspapers in the name of nedaye vatan, AI-Jamal, kashkoul and Mohakemat to praise constitution and to reproach despotism. The gentleness in his speech, being not collaborated to radical Journalists and his special style in dealing with the state and the Court and the Shah in particular led him to be accused as a hypocrite and a profiteer. These accusations intensified by his visit to Isfahan when his repeated meetings with Bakhtiari Khans during the minor tyranny turned him in to one of the Shah's spies and made him to desist his political and journalistic activities.In this paper, reviewing the political life of Majd ai-Islam, it is tried to clarify the accuracy or dishonesty of the accusations attributed to him and their background, the opinions of his contemporary proponents and opponents and later researchers as well.

Iranian culture and civilization are resulted from different ethnic groups had been living in Iran during all historical periods, and in this context Persians who established Achaemenid Empire, played a key role. Unfortunately there is little data about the entrance of these people and the routes and dates of their migration into Plateau of Iran in the archaeological records before the establishment of the Achaemenid Empire. Their first settlement centers, their cultural materials and their historical geography have been remained as uncertain subjects. So, wrong information, such as the relations of the words "ParSua", "Parsua", "Parsuash" and "Parsumash" with Persians and their migration into Iran have been produced. According to accomplished studies, except "Parsumash", had firstly been mentioned in the inscriptions of Senacherib, the Assyrian king in 691 B.C, which referred to Persia, three other names refer to the land of Parsua (in some cases is recorded as Parsua, Parsuash and Parsumash) where was located in Central Zagros without any relation to Persians.