History of Islam and Iran
Year:2021 | Volume:31 | Issue:49 (139)|Papers Count:8

Zoroastrian Society of Iran saw many ups and downs with the collapse of the Sasanian government and the domination of Islam. It was, however, neither dismissed as it was thought nor able to maintain its former authority. The Zoroastrian society sought to make a living by proving that it was the owner of a book and that it is beside the people of Ahle-Kitab, and by paying the ransom or jizyah. Another reason for the Zoroastrians to live longer was their dominance over bureaucratic affairs and preservation until the fifth century AH. They were meticulous and skilled office workers. The government of the Bouyeh, which sought to revive Iranian traditions, gave the Zoroastrian administrative an opportunity. The subject of this essay is an examination of one of the Zoroastrian personalities who served an important role in the time of Baha'u-daulah al-Dilami (c. 379-404 AH). His name is mentioned both in Zoroastrian sources and in Arabic historical texts.

At the initiation of Iranian society's encounter with the West, the inquiry of the retrogradation and ways out became the principal issue amongst intellectuals. Each person and group proposed a specific model in the initiation of the crises of Iranian society. Aliakbar Dawar's thoughts about this matter. The basic question is that what was his desirable pattern for development. This article hypothesizes that the dominant model in Dawar's thought was the model of economic reform. The outcomes of this research show that, despite the majority of the intellectuals during this Era, Dawar did not have an ethical perception of modernism. He believed that the predominance of the West is due to its economic and industrial excellence. Therefore, he insisted that the political and cultural reforms are both useless. Dawar believed that the economic reforms are prior to both political and cultural reforms. Through this belief, he tended to enlightened despotism. Because he believed that those reforms are applicable under the governing of a dominant regime. The outcome of such a belief was a superficial perception of modernism and modernization. Without considering the foundations and conditions of Western Civilization, Dawar attempted to save Iranian society from regress by minor economic reforms and government reorganization. The adoption of this policy led to incomplete and primitive modernization. That kind of modernization could not give an effective response to Iran's problems at that moment.

Today, different formulations of environmental discourses are presented. These discourses determine how governments and societies view the environment. Naturally, following each of these discourses will have specific consequences for countries. They will evaluate specific policies for environmental protection and determine how and to what extent natural resources should be exploited. One of the environmental discourses is the discourse of sustainable development, which is closely related to the discourse of survivalism. This discourse emphasizes the optimal use of natural resources and considers these resources as the heritage of all human beings so that future generations can use them. In Iran, before the Revolution of 1979, the Fifth Development Plan was the only plan that dedicated a specific chapter to preserving and improving the environment. Using the historical research method while trying to explain the goals and policies of the Fifth Plan, this article intends to answer the question: What was the environmental discourse that governed the Fifth Plan? And consequences for the environment did it lead to? Forests and pastures have also been considered as a case study of this article. This article shows how the lack of sustainable development led to to the domination of a reconstructive and reactionary look and neglect of preventive and action-oriented view in this program. This change, in turn, hold back protection programs and intertwined with a tool-based approach to the environment, the imperative nature of plan-making, and the quasi-modern state, represented a complete picture of unsustainable development.

This study is based on why during the second stage of the development of nationalism in Iran, anti-Turkism became the focus of attention of Iranian nationalists and the consequences of this approach for the position of the Turkish language in the history and geography of Iran? Following the broad scope of the temporal and thematic of issues concentrated on nationalism in contemporary Iran, This study is limited to articles that published in the press and magazines at the period of transition from Qajar to Pahlavi, such as "Kaveh", "Iranshahr", "Name ferangestan" and "Ayandeh". Based on the findings of this study, two factors caused the sensitivity and skepticism of Iranian nationalists towards the Turks and the Turkish language. The first factor was the reductionist understanding of the concept of the Iranian nation-state, based on the Aryan race and the Persian language. Another factor was the presence and influence of the Ottoman Empire in Azerbaijan and the western borders of Iran, and the independence of the Republic of Azerbaijan (1918) from Russia. As a result, Iranian nationalists became concerned about the influence and presence of Ottoman Turkish and Caucasian nationalists among the Turks of Iran. They considered the Turkish language in Azerbaijan as a threat to the existence and national identity of Iran. Attempting to eliminate the Turkish language in Azerbaijan and the spread of the Persian language instead was the solution of the Iranian nationalists in this situation.

Unlike the war between the Achaemenids and the Greeks during the reign of Darius and Xerxes, the accounts on the war of the later periods (Artaxerxes I, Darius II, Artaxerxes II) is remembered with scattered secondary narratives in Greek sources. After the so-called Callias Peace in 449 BCE between Persia and Athens, Athenian historians turned their attention away from the Persians and turned to their home rival Sparta. Thus, in the next 60 years, until the so-called Antalcidas' Peace (or King's Peace), one confronts a deliberate disregard for the Persian presence on the Western fronts and its interference in Greek affairs. Recent historical sources have also looked at the events of this period through the Athenian eyes of the 4th Century BC, which had its own necessities and limitations. Modern scholarship, although diligent in shedding light on the dark and obscure points of this period, almost remained Hellenocentrist. In this study, the influence of the Persian state in Ionia and western Asia Minor after the Peloponnesian War and the intervention of the Great King in Greek affairs are reassessed. We also reconsider the military and diplomatic victory of Persia over Athens and Sparta and what is called Persian victory through the gold and bribes in the early fourth century.

Azerbaijan has a long tradition of carpet weaving. Azerbaijan became one of the country's most prosperous regions during the Qajar period when Tabriz was chosen as the Crown Prince's seat and the center of trade with Russia and Western countries. During this period, the Azerbaijani carpet industry flourished, owing to the country's advantageous economic and commercial position as well as the region's favorable natural and climatic characteristics. Production of this commodity increased significantly, and trade expanded. Carpets from the country were exported. Using descriptive-analytical methods and archival documents and library tools, this research aims to investigate the research's main topic, namely the status and evolution of carpet production and trade in Azerbaijan during the Qajar era. According to the results, carpet weaving in Azerbaijan in the first half of the nineteenth century was primarily a rural occupation, with peasants and a few urban weavers working in home workshops, and was considered a domestic commercial product. However, with the investment of Tabriz merchants and foreign companies in the region's carpet industry and the establishment of large carpet weaving workshops in the second half of the twentieth century, the amount of carpet production and the value of its exports increased significantly. Azarbaijan carpets were widely exported to European and American markets during the Qajar era, in addition to Russia and Turkey.

The Seljuk era is one of the most critical periods in the history of Iran. Khuzestan was also known as the "Seljuk cloakroom" and was one of Iran's most important provinces (politically and economically) at the time. Research on the history of Khuzestan in this period is complex due to the lack of independent sources. The current research topic is the study of the factors that led to the founding and early decline of Ā l-Shomleh's local government in Khuzestan during the Seljuk period. With the emergence of signs of weakening and complete collapse of the Seljuks in the middle of the sixth century AH, the ground was prepared for the establishment of local governments in various parts of Iran, according to the findings. Khuzestan was no exception to this rule. At this time, one of the Seljuk court rulers named "Amir Shomleh Turkmani" took advantage of the political turmoil after the death of Sultan Massoud of Seljuk (449-447 AH) and took control of Khuzestan and established an independent local government. Still, his government and his successors were also in a hurry. Differences within the dynasty of this family on the one hand, and the growing revival of worldly power of the Abbasid Caliphate in the time of Nasser (622-575 AH) on the other hand, caused the collapse of this local dynasty and the domination of the Abbasid Caliphate over Khuzestan.

Under the leadership of Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah ibn Hassan, the Hassanids staged their first uprising in 145 AH. It occurred when there were more influential personalities among the Alavids in terms of eldership, scientific rank, and the number of companions. Imam Ja'far (AS) was at the head of them. Meanwhile, Muhammad's father, 'Abd-Allah al-Mah, held a special position among the Hassanids. By acknowledging the emphasis sources on the Imam's avoidance of any political activity during the late Umayyad's period, the question can be asked what factor played a pivotal role in accepting the leadership of Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah and involvement of the various group in his uprising, even though his father was still alive? Based on Weber's charismatic personality theory, the current study's findings suggest that 'Abd-Allah al-Mahḍ possessed charismatic authority. During the late Umayyad period's crisis, he devised a successful strategy to pass charismatic authority to his son Muhammad and have it accepted by his followers by emphasizing the characteristics of Nafs Zakyya, using mythical imitation, and attracting the charismatic community's attention among the Hashimids. As a result of the continuing crisis and 'Abd-Allah's support and propaganda at the start of the Abbasid caliphate, Muhammad revolted during his father's lifetime. Despite his lack of eldership, he was backed by numerous prominent groups.