IRANIAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGY
Year:2021 | Volume:5 | Issue:9|Papers Count:16

Disease X is a placeholder name that was developed by the World Health Organization in 2018 which includes an unknown pathogen that could cause a future epidemic or pandemic. Regarding the new pandemic caused by the new coronavirus, as a new and unknown pathogen, there does appear the new coronavirus is the first disease X which has been warned by World Health Organization before its outbreak.

In a prototypical response to an acute viral infection it would be expected that the adaptive immune response would eliminate all virally infected cells within a few weeks of infection. However many (non-retrovirus) RNA viruses can establish ‘, within host’,persistent infections that occasionally lead to chronic or reactivated disease. Despite the importance of ‘, within host’,persistent RNA virus infections, much has still to be learnt about the molecular mechanisms by which RNA viruses establish persistent infections, why innate and adaptive immune responses fail to rapidly clear these infections, and the epidemiological and potential disease consequences of such infections.

Quinones are a group of lipids linked to membrane and play as a electron carrier in electron transport chain of all creatures. The main classes of these compounds are ubiquinones, menaquinones and plastoquinones. Menaquinones exist in bacteria and archaea. Based on membrane lipid analysis and polymerase chain reaction, quinones introduce a special taxonomy profile in microbial biomass of environmental samples. The purpose of this study was the role of quinones as biomarker in evolution of archaea. Nowadays, oxidative reductive conditions considered as important factors in occur of quinones in microorganisms. In addition, function of quinones in electron transport chain associated to compatibility of membrane with environmental stresses. Therefore, quinones could be considered as biomarker lipids to investigate microbial interactions. In this regard, menaquinone synthesis existed in archaea and bacteria ancestors. This idea supported by low reductive potential of menaquione in archaeal ancestor. Therefore, variety of quinones in Archaea spp. Lead us to obtain more information concerning to evolution of Archaea. It means variety characters of quinones in Archaea spp. associated with their strategy for compatible and survival. Therefore, different structures of quinones in Archaea could give us valuable information concerning to archaeal taxonomy.

Pollen grains as biological particles are the main source of airborne allergens and investigation about their allergenicity is very important. Pollen grains of trees, weeds and grasses are effective in increasing the seasonal allergies and cause the allergic rhinitis, allergic conjunctivitis, eczema, and gastrointestinal reactions and asthma. Recognizing the allergenic plant and allergen factors in pollen grains and establishing the annual distribution calendar of pollens in flora are high throughput strategies for reducing the allergies in susceptible people. This article investigates the different factors causing pollen allergenicity and the modality of allergic diagnosis occurrence.

Viruses are pathogens that strictly depend on their host for propagation. Over years of co-evolution viruses have become experts in exploiting the host cell biology and physiology to ensure efficient replication and spread. Here, we will first summarize the concepts that have emerged from in vitro cell culture studies to understand virus spread. We will then review the results from studies in living animals that reveal how viruses exploit the natural flow of body fluids, specific tissue architecture, and patterns of cell circulation and migration to spread within the host. Understanding tissue physiology will be critical for the design of antiviral strategies that prevent virus dissemination.

Examination of reports from international organizations and various countries shows that various aspects of the fisheries and aquaculture industry are strongly affected by the COVID-19 epidemic, so that jobs, incomes and human food security are at risk. In order to immediately address the economic and social problems that this crisis has created in the fisheries and aquaculture sector, it is necessary to adopt management strategies and policies by fisheries and government managers. With this in mind, this paper aims to provide up-to-date information on the effects of the COVID-19 virus outbreak on the world fisheries and aquaculture industry. Reports indicate that the prevalence of COVID-19 has directly affected the food supply chains in various countries, which is very important. In addition, declining sales of fishery products, lack of access to raw materials (such as eggs and aquatic feed), layoffs of workers, declining incomes of farmers and lack of funding by some organizations were identified as major problems in the fisheries industry. In addition, declining sales of fishery products, lack of access to raw materials (such as eggs and aquatic feed), layoffs, declining farmers' incomes, and non-allocation of funds by some institutions were identified as major problems in the fisheries industry.

The social environment shapes human health, producing strong relationships between social factors, disease risk, and survival. The strength of these links has drawn attention from researchers in both the social and natural sciences, who share common interests in the biological processes that link the social environment to disease outcomes and mortality risk. Social scientists are motivated by an interest in contributing to policy that improves human health. Evolutionary biologists are interested in the origins of sociality and the determinants of Darwinian fitness. These research agendas have now converged to demonstrate strong parallels between the consequences of social adversity in human populations and in other social mammals, at least for the social processes that are most analogous between species. At the same time, recent studies in experimental animal models confirm that socially induced stress is, by itself, sufficient to negatively affect health and shorten life span. These findings suggest that some aspects of the social determinants of health—, especially those that can be modeled through studies of direct social interaction in nonhuman animals—,have deep evolutionary roots. They also present new opportunities for studying the emergence of social disparities in health and mortality risk. The relationship between the social environment and mortality risk has been known in humans for some time, but studies in other social mammals have only recently been able to test for the same general phenomenon. These studies reveal that measures of social integration, social support, and, to a lesser extent, social status independently predict life span in at least four different mammalian orders. Despite key differences in the factors that structure the social environment in humans and other animals, the effect sizes that relate social status and social integration to natural life span in other mammals align with those estimated for social environmental effects in humans. Also like humans, multiple distinct measures of social integration have predictive value, and in the taxa examined thus far, social adversity in early life is particularly tightly linked to later-life survival. Animal models have also been key to advancing our understanding of the causal links between social processes and health. Studies in laboratory animals indicate that socially induced stress has direct effects on immune function, disease susceptibility, and life span. Animal models have revealed pervasive changes in the response to social adversity that are detectable at the molecular level. Recent work a. in mice has also shown that socially induced stress shortens natural life spans owing to multiple causes, including atherosclerosis. This result echoes those in humans, in which social adversity predicts increased mortality risk from almost all major causes of death. Although not all facets of the social determinants of health in humans can be effectively modeled in other social mammals, the strong evidence that some of these determinants are shared argues that comparative studies should play a frontline role in the effort to understand them. Expanding the set of species studied in nature, as well as the range of human populations in which the social environment is well characterized, should be a priority. Such studies have high potential to shed light on the pathways that connect social experience to life course outcomes as well as the evolutionary logic that accounts for these effects. Studies that draw on the power and tools afforded by laboratory model organisms are also crucial because of their potential for identifying causal links. Important research directions include understanding the predictors of interindividual and intersocietal differences in response to social adversity, testing the efficacy of potential interventions, and extending research on the physiological signatures of social gradients to the brain and other tissues. Path-breaking studies in this area will not only integrate results from different disciplines but also involve cross-disciplinary efforts that begin at study conception and design.

Sperm cryopreservation is more important due to clinical needs, reproductive management, and fertility maintenance techniques. Despite the success of sperm cryopreservation, this method usually causes serious and destructive changes in sperm function. Antioxidant supplements are added to the semen environment during freezing for three reasons. They have antioxidant properties, they can improve the antioxidant system of fluid and sperm. and to reduce the destructive effects of ROS produced by cold shock to the semen environment, they are added during cryopreservation. Therefore, it is necessary to review the results of recent applications regarding the effect of various antioxidant supplements used to improve sperm cryopreservation. Therefore, this study was conducted to increase the understanding of the role of antioxidant supplements in the mechanisms that increase sperm resistance to oxidative damage.

The testis is the functional reproductive unit in male mammals that express male reproductive performance with special chemical and physical characteristics. In mammals, each testis consists of complex tubules divided morphologically and physiologically into different functional sections consisting of specialized cells that today are important topics for the recent research fields. In this paper, we try to discuss the somatic and specialized cells, called Sertoli cells, from different scientific respects resulting from studies by the present authors and those of other researchers. These cells are part of the seminiferous cells extended from the basal lamina to the lumen lining the entire seminiferous tubules like a veil,this morphological form is definitely associated with their functional and physiological roles. An interesting and notable point, which is the basis of many researches on these cells, is the non-dividing of Sertoli cells in their niches. Upon extraction they can be forced to divide in different ways including plating with lectin (due to their binding affinity to lectin after enzymatic digestion of the testicular tissue) in special culture media and in vitro conditions. This can promise a bright future in solving the infertility problems according to its fundamental roles in physical and chemical support of germ cells during the process of spermatogenesis.

Viruses survive often harsh host environments, yet we know little about the strategies they utilize to adapt and subsist given their limited genomic resources. We are beginning to appreciate the surprising versatility of viral genomes and how replicationcompetent and-defective virus variants can provide means for adaptation, immune escape and virus perpetuation. This Review summarizes current knowledge of the types of defective viral genomes generated during the replication of RNA viruses and the functions that they carry out. We highlight the universality and diversity of defective viral genomes during infections and discuss their predicted role in maintaining a fit virus population, their impact on human and animal health, and their potential to be harnessed as antiviral tools.

Inulinases are a class of enzymes that are widely used to produce fructose syrup. Due to the importance of this group enzyme in the production of fructose and high fructose syrup, developed countries continue to research in this field. The most important source of inulinase production is microorganisms. In this article, firstly, the structure, types, and applications of inulinases are mentioned and then its global market is discussed based on various criteria. Further, solid-state fermentation is overviewed as a suitable production system for industrial production of this enzyme and finally, the production and refining stages as well as challenges in their production are addressed and solutions to overcome these problems are proposed.

When it comes to intelligence and clever behavior, the first picture that comes to mind advanced creatures like mammals and ranked first in humans. However, do non-advanced organisms such as microorganisms have clever intelligence and behavior? Are there strategies and mechanisms for different situations? In addition, do they have the program to survive? Communicative competences and the use of the semiochemical vocabulary enable bacteria to develop, organise and coordinate rich social life with a great variety of behavioral patterns even in which they organise themselves like multicellular organisms. They have existed almost four billion years and still survive,they have been during the evolutionary history and have made adjustments. Recent researches have shown that bacteria are derived ability of the edit genome from viruses. In this paper, microbial intelligence and their presence in microbial communities and illustrates some communication paths between bacteria and viruses were studied. Biotechnological applications of microbial social relationships are determined and the new strategy revealed against pathogenic bacteria based on these same communicative and routine interactions between bacteria.

Reproduction is the biological process by which a new individual organism is produced from their parents (sexual method) or parent (asexual method), and is essential for the survival of species. Nowadays, global trends in total fertility rate (TFR) show 2-fold decrease compared to 1950-1955. The average number of children per woman over her reproductive life subject for ages 15-49 was estimated to be 4. 96 in 1950-1955 and 2. 52 in 2010-2015. The present paper reviews hormonal regulation of spermatogenesis and sperm maturation in men, and investigates the roles of men in global rate of couple infertility. This study shows that decrease in TFR is associated with an increase in number of men that produce semen under the World Health Organization reference values, and considered as infertile men. Comprehensive analyses of world map on TFR, poverty (percentage of population living on less than $1. 25 per day), and hunger (percentage of population suffering from hunger) show that TFR has highly decreased in populations inhabiting the area under poverty and hunger,associated with an increase in number of infertile men. Considering a cross-talk between reproduction and metabolism, the present study suggests that suffering from hunger is a key determinant to decrease TFR due to disruption of hormonal regulation of spermatogenesis and sperm maturation in men.

Mangroves occur along the southern coastline of Iran from Mahshahr (Planted) in the Persian Gulf to the Bahu Kalat in the Oman Sea. Only two mangrove species, i. e., Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata, present in the region where the A. marina is the most common species accounting for > 97% of the total tree cover. We reviewed the current status of mangrove forests in Iran, with a focus on their ecological and socio-economic importance as well as various threats that are posed by anthropological activities.

Limitation of fossil fuel resources along with environmental pollution caused by combustion of them is necessary to search for renewable and clean alternatives. Most of the attention in biofuel production has been focused on the use of biomass, agricultural wastes, solid wastes, and sewage disposal sludge treatment. Today, there are renewable sources to replace fossil fuels such as plant biofuels. However, in the last decade microalgae cultivation has been introduced as another alternative to biomass production. The use of algal biomass in terms of water use and area under cultivation is more effective than crops and reduces cost and reduces greenhouse gas emissions by replacing fossil fuels. Many species of microalgae, due to their ability to use abundant organic carbon and inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus, can grow various aquatic ecosystems such as municipal and industrial wastewater and sewage and waste streams containing large amounts of organic and inorganic carbon, N, P, and other elements. With extensive studies and development of new techniques, it is possible to achieve cost-effective algal biomass production and also prevent the production of plant biofuels due to the high consumption of freshwater and agricultural lands.

For a century, two new viruses per year have spilled from their natural hosts into humans. The MERS, SARS, and 2009 H1N1 epidemics, and the HIV and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemics, testify to their damage. Zoonotic viruses infect people directly most often when they handle live primates, bats, and other wildlife (or their meat) or indirectly from farm ani-mals such as chickens and pigs. The risks are higher than ever. Here, we assess the cost of monitoring and preventing disease spillover driven by the unprecedented loss and fragmentation of tropical forests and by the burgeoning wildlife trade. Currently, we invest relatively little toward preventing deforestation and regulating wildlife trade, despite well-researched plans that demonstrate a high return on their investment in limiting zoo-noses and conferring many other benefits.