PAZHOHESH-HA-YE BASTANSHENASI IRAN
Year:2018 | Volume:8 | Issue:18 |Papers Count:12

In the northern part of the Iranian plateau, the archaeology of Epipaleolithic and Neolithic period be in a fundamentally important position. Mountain ranges and intermountain plains are two main geographical elements playing a key role in the environmental dynamism of the northern Iran. Dense forests and alpine pastures are both present in the mountains. The north Iranian forests, also famous as the Hyrcanian or Caspian forests (in the Irano-Turanian region), are located in the southern margin of the Caspian Sea and in the northern piedmont of Alborz from Astara in the west to Gildaghi in the East. The climate of this region is humid largely influenced by the Caspian Sea and the distribution and abundance of forest trees in this region is due to climatic variations, elevation and the relative amounts of annual rainfall. Juniper and Caucasian oak are found in the mountainous region between 2000m and 2500m altitude. On the western and central parts of the coastal strip with an elevation between 500m and 700m, there are forests of Querceto-Buxetosum with trees such as chestnut-leaved oak and boxwood. At the lower elevations, there are native-type trees like Persian ironwood, Caucasian wingnut, Caucasian alder, Persian silk, Caspian locust and Persian maple. Today, there is an obvious contrast between the mountains and open plains of the northern Iran due to anthropogenic intervention. The mountain piedmonts are covered with trees such as oriental beech, Persian ironwood and chestnut-leaved oak but the plains are usually bare of trees that are caused by human exploitation as well as agricultural activities. Pollen evidence indicates also a decrease in Caspian forests as a result of human activities during the past.

The northwest region of Iran has a special place in Iranian prehistoric studies for reason of its proximity to the most important cultural centers such as Caucasus, Minor Asia, Zagros, Mesopotamia as well as its placement on the routes to the eastern and central parts of Iran. The lack of long-term archaeological investigations has caused many problems and complexities in the chronological and cultural sequences at this region. On the one hand, the chronological table of northwestern Iran relies on the chronology proposed for the Lake Urmia Basin which due to its geographical character, cannot be generalized to the whole parts of the northwest. From the other hand, the eastern part of the east Azerbaijan province remained as an obscure region in the chronological framework of the Iranian archaeology. Although this area has a suitable environmental condition, but our knowledge about its various cultural sequences and relationship with the neighboring areas is still very rare. For example, there is no information about the earliest human settlements in the region as well as the cultural continuity or discontinuity in different periods. The period between the end of Hajifirouz until the beginning of the Kura-Aras culture in the chronological table of the northwestern of Iran is one of the most important but very obscure periods. The past activities in this area, focused on excavations at Hasanlu, Dalma and Pisdeli sites, have been attempting to provide a chronology for the Chalcolithic period of the area and correction of the Hasanlu’ s chronological table. In total, the results of these studies led to the recognition and correlation of Hasanlu VIII (Pisdeli-middle and late chalcolithic), Hasanlu IX (Dalma-early chalcolithic) and Hasanlu X (Neolithic) in the whole chronological sphere of this region. This chronological table was the main and the only source of information which was later revised. Moreover, recent excavations in the Kul Tepe of Jolfa and Davagoz at Khoy, with radiocarbon dating, have shed new lights on the Chalcolithic of the northwestern Iran. However, these studies do not include the eastern part of the northwest and currently a comprehensive picture of the cultural evolution at this region is missing. Also, there are basic questions regarding the landscape, regional relative chronology, cultural trends, cultural nature, and regional and trans-regional interactions in the eastern part of the Urmia Lake in this period.

In this work, eight samples in blue, dark blue and green colors that used in three ornaments were analyzed by multi-analytical techniques. One of these artifacts was obtained from the Tepe Hissar, Damghan dated to 3rd millennium BC and two other ones were excavated in the Tepe Nesfi, Gilan dated to first millennium BC and these ornaments belong to the National Museum of Iran. The aims of this study were the identification and characterization of the raw materials, opacifier and colorant agents used in the bead’ s samples. Determination and measurement of each of these factors respond to questions raised about the technology and manufacturing recipe, type of the glass and investigation of trade and exchange of beads in prehistoric times. Techniques such as XRD, FTIR, Micro-PIXE and Polarized Light Microscopic (PLM) were applied to characterize the samples. FTIR and micro-PIXE analysis of the blue bead was used in ornaments of Tepe Hesar showed that lapis lazuli used to make the beads. It is a semi-precious stone, and due to the high levels of magnesium and calcium in it, this sample has a considerable mineral content of diopside (CaMgSi2O6). The result of XRD spectra and PLM image of the seven samples of two necklaces of Tepe Nesfi showed that these samples lacked a crystalline structure, indicating the glass structure of the specimens. Elemental composition of the samples of Tepe Nesfi by micro-PIXE show that the all analyzed samples are soda-lime-silica glasses, which is the ash obtained from the plants are considered as the soda source, due to the high potassium and magnesium content. In addition, the results indicated that in these glass beads copper and iron compounds with different weight percentages were used as a colorant agents. Furthermore, antimony (Sb) compounds were used as opacifier in blue beads, but in the dark blue and green glass beads that are translucent glass do not detect any antimony compounds.

Surkh Dum-i-luri is located in 10 kilometers of southeast of Koohdasht city in Luristan province. In 1938, this area was explored and excavated through the Holmes investigation commission supervised by Schmidt. According to the archaeological discoveries, Surkh Dum has three stratigraphic layers. The main period of settlement in this site (layer 2) consists of a great architectural collection named temple. During the excavation of the surface floor of the architectural places, they discovered 1804 objects under the floor and in the walls. Regarding to the number of discovered objects and their different variety, generally, there is an appropriate opportunity to study the relation between the discovered building and the mentioned objects. Despite of their large number, these objects have not been classified and introduced yet. This study has been done by descriptive attitudes and relying on library data and archaeological survey. According to the topological results, Surkh Dum-i-luri objects consist of ornaments, seals, pins, tools, vessels, figures, weapons and miscellaneous objects. Ornaments and bronze are the most abundant elements, in terms of number and used material to make, respectively. Furthermore, study on the statistical population and pattern of these distribution show that these objects are votive and this place has an important role as a temple. Excavation of Surkh Dum-i-luri in Luristan by Schmidt shows the developments.

Selseleh and Delfan counties located in the North and North West of Lorestan are very important with having Sites and remains of Parthian period. Abundance and dispersion of these Sites is the demonstrative of this area in Parthian period. The studied area is located in the divide of Sefidkouh and Garrein which is a part of central Zagros and its environment appearance includes Valleys, Mountain plains and mountainous with a land – measurement amount to 4000 Km square. According to Archaeological studies and surface data there have been found about 519 ancient monument and sites from Paleolithic to recent Islamic period in this area which 307 of them had remains of Parthian period. Although a number of temporary Sites are probably nameless. Dating of These Sites is generally accomplished based on the surface data (Clinky-painted – glazed and simple) and acquired results from archaeological studies allude to Parthian settlements and their different living methods that it can be acquired very important documents to reconstructing economic and living methods of their aboriginal according to digging in the main Sites. In addition, in the present paper, it has been attempted to address several questions including: how have the settlements been distributed during the Parthian period in these regions? What could have been the reasons for the increase of Parthian settlements compared to the previous and later periods in these areas? How can the lack of large-scale settlements of the Parthian period in these regions be explained? Dispersion appearance of these ancient Sites also indicates that the most of the settlements in this area have been in the form of relatively small rural units. Although in this area there are not any evidences of urban centers – but acquired results from the study demonstrates the continual and effective presence of Parthians in the area.

The ancient city of Shapurkhast has been one of the Islamic cities on the western of Iran that has been attributed to the Sasanian period and developed at early Islamic era. According to the historical sources (the 3rd to 8th A. H), it has been constructed by Shapur I the Great and is located on the ancient routes of Hamedan to Khuzestan. The present research analyzes the data derived from the historical resources and archaeological evidences in order to study and determine the location of this ancient city and investigate the factors in settling in the area. Since there has not been much research about the city from the formation to the fall, and available research are relatively old and so new comprehensive research has not been done on the city with archaeological viewpoint and also some reports about it have not published, we will try to use the archaeological evidences, the written sources and the historical maps aiming to provide suitable information about this unknown city. The results of this study imply that 1. Shapurkhast has been an Islamic city that its foundation has been made at pre-Islamic periods. It was an important city at Sasanian period and the summit of the development and prosperity of it has been the 4th A. H that it had a key role at the western of Iran as the capital of Al-e Hasnuye and its Castle had been as royal property treasury of Badr-Ibn-E Hasnuye based on historic sources. 2. Islamic city of Shapurkhast is located at the place of current Khorram Abad valley (Qazi Abad, kouy-E-Felestin districts and around of Minaret at the southeast of Khorram Abad city). 3. It seems that Shapurkhast has been abandoned at the 7th or 8th A. H at Ilkhanid era and modern Khorram Abad began to function as the central town of the region.

In the mountainous terrain of Iran, having the “ Strait” or “ Canyon” , especially when faced with massive troops, a special privilege and even a winning key. “ Canyon” or “ Strait” was meant to be a passageway which passed through two mounts with a long wall and was protected by the creation of a defensive strand and troops on tight sides. Among the most famous & strategic straits in the history of Iran, can be referred to the Darband-e Kū lā (Kū lā Strait), which was the gateway to the Qā rē n & Sharwin mountains and at the end of the Sassanid era and the first centuries of Arab domination, which was the battlefield and the focus of the conflicts between Spahbeds of Tabarestā n against the Umayyad and Abbasid troops. But now Darband-e Kū lā `s place, is not obvious to us and in the past decades, the efforts of the researchers and his dispersed views to clarify the position of this toponym, have failed. The most important question of this research is where is Darband-e Kū lā ? So the fundamental purpose of this research is to identify this lost position in the during the history, using field survey method, historical geographic studies and descriptive-analytic methods was conducted among possible options. Due to the lack of resources about the Darband-e Kū lā , authors by inquiring into historical texts, with difficulty found the related lines with this toponym and they used it to reach the location of this Strait. Also, with field surveys, an old and strategic straits was identified in the East side of Alborz Mountaians in the Mā zandarā n Province, to be consistent with the indications given in the historical texts, compatibility to Darband-e Kū lā be investigated and to uncover the ambiguity about the position of this occupation.

Kharghan towers are two precious heritages of Saljuk dynasty. Nobel architecture, wall paintings, historic inscriptions and several fabioulos brick works are their special featurs that have made these towers as a distinguished tomb architecture of Saljuk age. Several unique brick work and glorious architecture that have made these heritages distinguished marks of saljuk era along with building towers in an abandoned area and lack of names of the founders of these buildings, has made them an ambiguous question. Although this ambiguity has not been neglected by western scholars, no approach and theory have been suggested to solve this qustion. It seems inorder to suggest a new solution. The previous theories must be doubted. In fact, these current ambiguities are the natural consequece of western scholar’ s theory who believed that founders of buildings are turkish and mililtary commanders of the region who affiliated with governement and another theory is that these towers are the result of supporting artistic works founded by people who were affilated with governement but none of these theories has answered the question that why there is no name for the founders of these monuments. However, according to the historical texts and evidences, dated back to seljuk era, it is clear that a distinguished person, Khajeh Nizam al-Mulk, had always criticized the act of giving too much governement titles. In this paper, the dominant social structure of Saljuk age has been studied as one of the most important influential factors in forming of the art works. Due to this Factor and the formation of new social class which was evolved as a reason of development of the commercial relations, the founders of these tower were introduced as a member of the developing mid-level of society who were able to financial supporting of these towers and according to their indenpendency from the contemporaneous governement, their builders did not need to have the governemental titles and position.

Yazd Jameh Mosque is one of the most important historical buildings of the country. The local texts of Yazd refer to the formation of this mosque during different periods, that some sections are completed or added to which in each period. Maxime Siroux is one of the first individuals carried out a comprehensive research on this building. He presents four periods for formation of the first mosque building that contradicts the statements of archaeological texts and data. Therefore, this research attempts to review the historical period of construction of this building. In order to achieve this purpose, library studies and collection of the historical information, especially from the local texts were addressed and then the data resulted from the archaeological excavations were analyzed along with historical texts. The most important questions are: 1. Is it possible to prove the presence of a fire temple in the mosque place? 2. Given the available data, which period the Yazd Jameh Mosque returns to? The results of archaeological excavations show that there is no evidence that there has been a fire temple in the basement of building of the Jameh mosque of Yazd; three construction periods can also be considered for this building; In the first period, Aladdoleh Kalanjar tried to build a mosque that is mentioned in the Yazd texts as the both ancient (Atiq) mosque and the old mosque. In the second period, Aladdoleh Garshasb added some extensions to the mosque constructed by Aladdoleh; this led him to be introduced as one of the constructors in the local texts. In the third part, a condominium for girls was built alongside the old or the ancient mosque, and the constructors also built a monument next to which for their burial, which is also available today.

The Islamic period inscriptions are valuable sources for religious, political, and social thoughts of Islamic periodical architects and artists, in a way that provides valuable information about religious, social and cultural situations of their time. Yazd Mosque is one of the magnificent monuments of the Islamic period of Iran that has been the virtuousness place for the artists of this country during various Islamic periods. In the present article, the inscriptions of this mosque are examined for aesthetics and symbolism. Decorative motifs of inscriptions were identified and extracted using software and analyzed their symbolic concepts. The study on these inscriptions shows that they have been well favored, so that within themselves they conceal valuable concepts of religious thought and express them with symbolic language. In most of the inscriptions, a common and special way for making space is used, as a grid of geometric patterns that are themselves enclosed by various abstract motifs in different size. Among the decorative motifs of the inscription in this mosque, the Shamseh and circle motifs have particular importance. The combination of geometric shapes along with various types of Shamseh arouses a particular spiritual environment, and the artist, using their combination, expresses their religious beliefs. In some cases, there is a particular style in the creation of inscriptions, including the artist’ s interest in creating a network of geometric patterns in the center of the motifs, that Ali and Mohammad names have been accommodated with them. The east portal inscriptions are a sample of these designs. There are certain concepts in applying the forms of geometric designs and their frequency, for example, can be pointed to using of eight blades Shamseh and eight time repeat of different geometric patterns, which probably express certain religious beliefs, including the existence of eight Paradise or the presence of the eight angels carrying the Divine Throne.

The pottery and ceramic objects have an important role in the archaeology and Archaeometry they are the principal alphabet of archaeology in Iran and Middle East, because of the main chronological map in this area is based on the pottery, normally archaeologist finds potteries in their excavation from the Neolithic to the Islamic period and depends on the age of a site they may possibility access to the various kinds, hand-made pottery, unglazed and glazed pottery, etc. Despite the aesthetic values archaeologist use the historic pottery in such actions like dating of the site, recognizing the sources of raw materials, as well as the identification of past technologies (methods of making and decoration, estimate the oxidation or reduction atmospheres when pottery fired in the past, etc. ) On the other hand, many historical potteries are damaged and eventually destroyed by the three most important factors. 1) physical damage (Including: impact damage with mechanical forces and thermal shocks, wear and previous nonstandard reconstruction), 2) decay and superficial crust (Sedimentation and deposition of foreign materials from various sources resulting from the use of, dissolving and insoluble salts, residues during burial, spills of contact materials and absorption and etc. ) 3) Chemical Deterioration (Including: Dissolution and exhaustion of the material from the process like: leaching, hydrolyze and the chemical effect of biological colonization, finally due to the changing appearance and missing parts in the potteries. repair and restoration of damaged pottery works has a long history and the archaeologist believe that this practical work have a same history to create and making the first pottery objects, nevertheless reconstruction of missing parts have variety of method with different materials (such as the reconstruction of cracks and missing parts with gold leaf in far east countries) and different methods like (some rare restorations made by pottery fragments with the same designs and joining them in the original place). However, generally materials and methods for the reconstruction of ancient pottery have not changed much since about 80 years ago around the world and it based on the construction of the missing parts by reversible materials, such as plaster of Paris, in combination with other filler materials and art pigments.

Among the traditional arts in Sistan and Baluchistan Province, it is possible to pottery production in a hand-made manner, with the entry of industrial tools and lack of support, only a limited number of people. The present research seeks to answer the following questions: What are the features and characteristics of the pottery in the village of Holonchokan? What is the relationship between the pottery of the village of Holonchokan and the prehistoric pottery of the region in terms of the Manufacturing and motifs? What is the impact of technology development and urbanization on the pottery industry in the region today? The research method in this paper is based on the two methods of “ ETHIC” , namely the objective observation of the researcher and the interpretation based on the language of science and mental imagery, and the “ EMIC” Interviewing people in the village and placing it in the dynamic context of this community. In the present research, we have tried to study the manufacturing process, the intangible dimension of the organization of production as well as the continuation of pottery techniques in the Baluchistan region of Iran from the prehistoric period to the contemporary period, with the approach of the ethnography and ethnoarchaeology. Ethnographic studies show that the construction of a dish is very static, and both potters use the same technique in the Holonchokan village. Pottery, which is nowadays produced in the Holonchokan village, is made in a handmade and in a primitive manner. Today, the production of pottery in the Holonchokan, using techniques and even some of the paintings similar to those made in the 3rd millennium B. C, is among the ancient sites of the area, showing significant flexibility and continuity over time. The lack of change in production methods, should not be counted as the conservatism of potters. The answer to this is in the socio-environmental context in which the pottery is made and used.