Ma`rifat-e Adyan
Year:2022 | Volume:13 | Issue:4|Papers Count:8

One of the most frequently used words, especially in ancient narrative texts, is the word "majus". There are significant number of hadiths on this word in the Islamic tradition. The question of this article is to determine the referents of “majus” in Islamic texts. There are two general views about the referent of “majus”. Some writers have considered a wide range for the referents of “majus” and have named several sects for it; while they disagree on the number and names of these sects. Mentioning the supporters of this point of view and criticizing their idea, this article deals with the history of the followers of ancient Iranian religions and considers Zoroastrianism to be the only living religion of ancient Iran, which has active followers; Zoroastrians are the only ones who can be the referent of “majus”. Analyzing and comparing “majus” in the Islamic narrations, this article chooses this point of view that Zoroastrians are the only referents of “majus” in Islamic religious texts.

One of the necessary discussions of educational sciences, especially of the philosophy of education, is to present a critical knowledge of the schools of education, with a comparative study of these schools and some contemporary religious philosophical schools. This research tries to criticize Tao’s aims and educational principles, based on the transcendental wisdom of Molla Sadra, to achieve this goal. Using an inferential method, I have first extracted the goals, principles and educational methods of Taoism; and second, I have criticized Taoism and its philosophical foundations based on the transcendental wisdom. The most important educational goal of Taoism, as I have researched, is educating human in harmony with the true tariqa (method), i.e. Tao. Examining these goals and principles on the basis of the transcendental wisdom, I will show that the lack of proper theology and the philosophical gap between ontology and anthropology has made Taoism - as an educational philosophy - incapable of correctly interpreting its goals and principles - such as balance and complete obedience of tariqa - in the first place. Nevertheless, some of the educational teachings of Taoism, such as simplicity, return to nature and balance between physical and mental education, can have a positive messages for education and training.

The concept of footprint (qadamgah) and its various philosophies and functions has - in inter-religious studies – an important part in the works related to the common religious rituals. Orientalists, and especially the researchers in the field of Buddhism, have analyzed the meaning of this concept and its archeology most of the time. Their result is some biased opinions in the field of antiquity and the influence of Buddhism in imposing the concept of footprint on other religions. Based on a historical analysis, this article aims to clarify that despite some Orientalists’ theories, footprints do not have Buddhist roots, in the history of Abrahamic religions. They are, in fact, a representation of the universal common beliefs of people who have a monotheistic root and basis, which has turned into customs and rituals at the level of collective unconscious. Quranic and narrational sources represent some proofs for this claim. The result of this research is that the concept of footprint has its own theological meaning in every religion; and considering the age of Abraham's footprint in Makkah, I can acknowledge that monotheistic religions were pioneers in inventing this concept and its philosophy, based on Quranic verses. In addition, the multiple number of footprints in the Buddhist tradition does not mean they are the founder of such religious pilgrimage sites in the history of religions.

One of the fundamental issues in the intellectual system of Shankaracharya and Aziz-O-Din Nassfi is the discussion on the levels of wisdom and its surrounding issues. A comparative study of their views shows how much their soluk (mystic journey) and soluki thought, from two spiritual traditions, are similiar. According to Shankaracharya’s system of thought, wisdom is a knowledge that eliminates false belief. In his intellectual system, wisdom has two levels: transcendental and conventional levels. Conventional wisdom is based on the senses, while the transcendental wisdom is the knowledge of "Atman" which does not need intellectual reasoning. According to Hakim Nasafi's intellectual system, wisdom is the presence of knowledge and practice, which is divided into two categories: intuitive and acquired wisdom. Nasafi believes that reaching the position of wisdom is equal to reaching the Divine position. Wisdom does not have a purely theoretical aspect in the conceptual system of the two scholars. Practical wisdom has a higher level compared with theoretical wisdom in both of their systems of thought. They both criticize theoretical wisdom in their mystical reflections and wisdom. One of the differences between the two scholars is that Shankara's division of wisdom is a complete dual division; but intuitive wisdom, according to Nasafi’s thought, has a nature with analogical gradation. This research shows that it is possible - in the intellectual system of both scholars - to reach the highest levels of wisdom through mystical journey, asceticism and striving.

Judaism is one of the Divine religions that has various denominations and mystical sects, similar to the other Abrahamic religions, some of which have found a non-Divine trend. One of the most important and influential Jewish mysticisms, which separated it from Judaism, is the mysticism of Kabbalah; which later caused the emergence of Christian Kabbalah due to the close [relationships] and dispersion of Jews among European Christians. Kabbalists approached the Knights Templar and were able to instill their thoughts into this group. These activities were associated with the peak of Freemason's work, in the Middle Ages, who started to establish lodges in order to protect their jobs, art, and knowledge, and to educate their faithful students. Nobles, politicians and princes were gradually attracted to the lodge because of its mysteriousness, which became an opportunity for Kabbalistic thinkers to develop their influence and thoughts. The lodges later left their practical status and assumed a theoretical status, due to the diminishing importance of the construction jobs and the emergence of Renaissance in Europe; and Freemasonry began with the Grand Lodge of England in 1717, in an organized and public form.

A part of the artists' works has always been dedicated to human’s desire to achieve justice at the end of the world and thinking about how is the life after death. Despite the ambiguities of the Jewish and Christian scriptures regarding the final fate of the wicked people, hell and the punishment of sinners are mentioned in various verses of the Old and especially the New Testament. Therefore, the Bible has always been one of the sources of inspiration for artists to create and produce works of art with religious themes. In addition to religious texts and traditions, some other factors such as the political and cultural climate at the time of the production of the artworks have had a significant impact on the artist’s view towards hell and the apocalypse. This article examines how much Europe’s paintings of the 18th and 19th centuries are loyal to religion – studying the works of prominent artists of that era about Hell, namely William Blake, John Martin and Gustave Dore-, using an analytical-comparative method. Examining various verses of the Old and New Testaments, it seems that the adaptation of the artwork to the Holy Text, in many cases, is more in the type of sin than the type of punishment considered for that sin; and in addition to adapting religious themes, artists have been inspired by each other, by literary manuscripts, by political, cultural and artistic events, and finally by their own minds to create the image of hell and the day of judgment.

Ajivika is one of the Gnostic and heretical forms of Indian religion, which, despite being roughly consistent with Jainism and Buddhism, created a separate effective doctrine against Brahmanism in the 6th century BC. "Hindi's missing religion" is an expression that describes Ajivika; because it disappeared from the 14th century AD and was probably absorbed into later trends such as Digambaras of Jainism and Vaishnavism. The central and distinctive thought of Ajivika is "determinism" - as a rare tendency in the Hindu intellectual space - which seems to be, having a minimal reading of it, in conflict with the comprehensive idea of "karma". Focusing on "determinism" in the expression of the theoretical and practical dimensions of Ajivika, this research tends to study and analyze the possibility of a relative harmony or a complete conflict between the idea of predestination (niyyati) and the doctrine of “karma”. My analysis in this essay shows that the absolute acceptance of predestination and rather the denial of human free will by Ajivika seems to be consistent with the other ideas of this school; such as: "believing in the six classes of existence", "atomism", "prophecy according to the idea of determinism of nature" and also "belief in the efficacy of asceticism (tapas) in achieving salvation (moksha)". However, I can say, from a critical point of view, that despite having a formal order, Ajivika's thoughts are based on inexperienciable presuppositions and on dubious ideas in some cases.

One of the distinguishing and highlighting characteristics of the current era is the rise and prevalence of very diverse and new spiritual movements and trends that have created a new identity for themselves presenting new interpretations of existence, man and life. The increasing prevalence and expansion of these new spiritual trends prompts us to look into the causes of their rise and spread. Most sociologists have introduced these spiritual trends as new religions. Therefore, I have first tried to find the definition of this type of religion; then I will examine the causes and factors of the rise and spread of these spiritualities - according to the definitions provided - by observing, analyzing and explaining the existing data, both within these emerging movements and with regard to the different conditions of today's society. Then I will evaluate modernism and postmodernism, and discuss the negation of tradition and the development of individualism. I will also discuss how postmodernism is a radicalized version of modernity in some of its characteristics, and how it has provided the basis for all kinds of spiritual explanations by negating the existence of an independent and conscious subject and negating any kind of meta-narrative. Then I will discuss the following causes and factors: the lack of meaning in life and dissatisfaction with the modern lifestyle, identity crisis, the existence of new technologies such as the internet, etc. Finally I will mention the movements formed in the context of modernity, which are in line with it and try to help its aims.