NAMEH-YE-MOFID
Year:2002 | Volume:8 | Issue:2 (30 PHILOSOPHY)|Papers Count:16

Any semantic theory of definite descriptions for sentences of natural language, claiming to be a comprehensive one, should be able to provide a proper analysis of the sentences like" the author of Waverley was a poet," and" The president of Iran is wise." Similarly, such a theory should give a plausible account for the problem concerning the sentences like "The king of France is bald", and "The round square is round". In the same way, the theory should process the adequacy needed for explaining and analyzing the occurrence of definite descriptions in de dicto / de re attitude sentences, such as "Jones believes that Scott was the author of Waverley." and "About the president of Iran, Smith believes that he is wise". Likewise, it ought to give a satisfactory solution to the problem attached to the chain of sentences like (a)"Jones wished to know whether Scott was the author of Waverley," (b) "Scott was the author of Waverley," and (c) "Jones wished to know whether Scott was Scott." Russell claims that his quantifying theory of definite descriptions has the adequacy and capability needed for analyzing and explaining the de dicto/ de re attitude contexts and is able to resolve their problem. But we shall see that Russell’s claim is not correct and his account is failed.

It would not be nonsense to suggest that the concept of "intentionality" is the most essential concept in phenomenalism.In this philosophical trend, epistemology has its roots in a concept which can be traced back in the history of philosophy. Undoubtedly, Brentano is the first philosopher who analaysed and reformulated this concept in phenomenology as an epistemological principle. The reasons why Brentano has taken this principle into consideration will not be clear unless the origin of this concept is determined. Nor will the essential role this concept has for Husserl. It should be noted, of course, that it is the various functions of the concept of "intentionality" and its consequences in Husserl’s system of thought that has attracted the attention of philosophers to phenomenalism. In this article, the writer discusses the concept of "intentionality" as viewed by Brentano and its (historical) course of development.

The present article seeks to cast light on "justice" from Aquinas" point of view. Having given the definition of "virtue", the writer seeks to determine the most important virtue and to discuss Aquinas" views on distributive justice, right and injustice.

Throughout the history of mankind, there have been divine Prophets and thinkers (theosophists) who tried their best to offer arguments ("proofs") for the existence of the Divine. Ibn Sina (Avicenna), referred to as an Islamic philosopher, plays a significant part in offering proofs or demonstrations for the existence of the Divine ("God").In this article, the writer discusses that the problem of the existence of God is a theoretical one and that among the existing philosophical proofs for the existence of God a few can deserve serious attention, focusing his discussion on various accounts Ibn Sina offered for the existence of God in his most significant works such as "al-Shifa" ("Healing"), al-Najah ("Deliverance") and "al-Mabda" wa’l-ma’ad and goes on to explain that all these accounts are actually one and the same statement. Ibn Sina calls his demonstration (Borhan) "Seddiqin" and, as such, has been criticized by Mullă Sadră (Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Qawami al-Shirazi).From the viewpoint of eminent philosophers, Ibn Sina’s demonstration is neither an apriori demonstration nor an argument (dalil); rather it is a quasi-apriori demonstration.The article comes to an end with a brief discussion on some objections to Ibn Sina’s demonstration.

Gnosticism is one of the important religious - Gnostic schools at the beginning centuries of Christian era. In this paper, the important Gnostic schools of the second and the third century A.D. are analyzed. These Gnostic schools are mainly based on the ideas of Gnostics of the early Christianity, such as Simon the Magus. Valentine, Marcion, and Basilides. Gnostic attitude in Hermetic literature and in Mandaism, Sabaeans (Sābiūn) or Mughtasilah (Babtizers), is a complementary analysis of Gnosticism.The new theme that is presented through this paper is Manichaean gnosis which originated from Gnosticism of the early Christianity. In the 3rd century A.D., the eastern religious intellectuals (as the followers of Denavariyye in khorasan (and the western religious - Gnostic schools (in Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt) were grossly influenced by it. Manichaean Gnostic motif is the descend of spirit from the light paradise to this material world. So, human function, according to this school, is to release the celestial spirit particles imprisoned in the material bodies, salvation of the souls, and finally to the Realm of Light.

The theory of prima facie duties was developed by W.D.Ross. The main characteristic of this theory is that it does not recognize any principles as the base of ethics and basically it does not believe in any ordered list of moral principles. In other words, according to this theory one can do something if and only if there is an appropriate basis for doing that thing. The author first disproves some theories in which a principle or some principles are considered basic. Then he describes this theory as that in it we first face prima facie duties and then come to balance them and reach to appropriate duties. In the end, the author points to the objections to this theory.

This article seeks to cast light on the concept of "prime mover", the original and cause of motion (change) in the universe, an idea that was developed by Aristotle. In his work entitled Metaphysics, "wisdom" (Sophia) or "first philosophy" is defined as I) a “theoretical science of the first causes of reality" and 2) a "science of being qua being". Metaphysics itself consist of fourteen books. In Book Alfa, he recounts the first causes as efficient cause, formal cause, material cause and final (ultimate) cause.In book lambda, Aristotle deals with prime mover. In it he intends to give some explanations of the existence of motion in the material world or the universe and comes to the discussion about God from the very point of view. All things, said Aristotle, are involved in process of change. In other words, all of reality is moving from the state of potentiality to a state of actuality.He considered the prime mover as a Being or God, the actuality in Himself. Such a Being or "God" lies at the top of the pyramid of existence and all material things are drawn or attracted towards Him through the power of attraction, by being desired and loved, not by force. In fact, Aristotle considered the Prime mover as the ultimate cause of motion in the universe and not as its efficient cause. Aristotle thought of the unmoved mover as God and applied such divine attributes as existence and knowledge to Him, and in doing so he reconciled the first philosophical principle of the universe with the fundamental religious principle after they had been taken apart.The act of Aristotle’s God is thinking and the object of this thinking is Himself. Therefore, He does not know anything and pays no attention to the universe. He is not even the object of worship as much as He is not the creator, for Aristotle considered matter and motion as something eternal. Aristotle’s world of reality is purposeful, but not in the sense that all creation moves to its end consciously and that God has created the world as such. God’s influence on the universe is like the influence someone has on someone else unconsciously, or like the effect of a statue on an observer.

William James, proposing the impact of non-noetice factors on the process of acquiring knowledge in his article" The will to Believe" "led epistemologists to pay attention to this important point that perhaps achieving knowledge does not need only satisfying the epistemic standards, but since we obtain many beliefs under the influence of fears and hopes, loves and aversions, self-interests, etc., so sanctifying non-noetic realms of human being from vices and adorning them with virtues also affect on obtaining truth.What is discussed in this article is proposing the relation ship between one of the ethico-religious categories, i.e., sin, and knowledge. The writer seeks to show how, in the late twenty years, epistemologists have paid attention to the discussion of the relation between non-epistemic and epistemic aspects of human existence, so that one can consider sin as an epistemological category.