Woman in Development and Politics
Year:2019 | Volume:17 | Issue:3|Papers Count:7

Introduction: The psychological empowerment of women is a process in which women are empowered cognitively and behaviorally to organize their personal, family and social life. This research was conducted to compare psychological empowerment indices in rural and urban women. Methods: The study population consisted of women residing in Saral-e-Zahab and neighboring villages who remained in their city and village after the earthquake in Kermanshah and adapted to the conditions of their area of residence. A cluster random method was used to select sample members. Of the total number of women living in Saral-e-Zahab city, five regions were selected. According to the above, 154 women and 154 women from villages located in Zahab plain were selected as the sample and completed the psychological empowerment questionnaire. Researcher-made questionnaire was used to measure psychological empowerment indices in crisis. This questionnaire was developed through qualitative data through thematic content. In this study, the total validity of the questionnaire in the sample group was 0. 886. To analyze the data, multivariate analysis of variance was used and for the purpose of a more detailed examination, the results of Tukey's post hoc test were reported. Results: The findings of this study showed that among in-person components, there was a variable cognitive circuit that received less scores from rural women in urban women. Also, there is no significant difference in the interpersonal components of psychological empowerment between urban and rural women. In general, the independent variable, which is the same place of life, has a great influence on the cognitive circuit, but does not affect the interpersonal components.

In recent years, the participation of women in corporate governance, especially on boards of directors and audit committees, has considerably increased. Examining the effect of female audit committee members on agency costs and bankruptcy risk, this study aims to answer the question of whether women on the audit committee are associated with the improvement of its effectiveness. In this respect, 662 firm-year observations of listed companies on the Tehran Stock Exchange for the period 2012-2017 were analyzed, employing the method of panel data and Generalized Least Squares (GLS). The research findings revealed that female presence on audit committees has a significant negative association with agency costs and bankruptcy risk. In other words, female presence on audit committees leads to the reduction in agency costs and bankruptcy risk. In sum, the results support the viewpoint that women make better monitors, and they are more risk-averse and less tolerant towards managers’ opportunistic behaviors and thus, lead to the enhancement of audit committee effectiveness.

With regard to significant investment on developing and enhancing the level of university graduates' knowledge, including women, the importance of their employment becomes increasingly apparent. Because by increasing the employment of university graduates, the country's human resources can be appropriately and desirably used. The main purpose of this research is to identify and assess the skills affected on university graduated women who are seeking a job and their relationship with their employability. The statistical population of the study consisted of women seeking a work in Hamedan province. The sampling method was a proportional random method that according to the statistical population of the women (N=10431) a number of 350 women was selected. After data collection, data analysis was performed using descriptive and analytical statistics and application of software's SPSS and PLS. According to the results of the research, the relationship between the jobs in the labor market and the women’ s education and skills was poorly assessed in Hamedan province and the educational content of the universities had a weak overlapping with the needs of the labor market. The results of correlation coefficient showed that there is a positive and significant relationship between the variables, women‘ s compatibility, communication skills, IT skills, and willingness to work with the employability of the female graduates. The other independent variables did not show a significant relationship with the employability of the graduates. The results also showed that women in Hamedan province to acquire the current jobs need some skills such as ICT skills, public and communication skills, individual skills such as critical thinking and problem solving, technical and specialized skills, and management and planning skills.

Migration is one of the most prevalent and effective social phenomenon that may cause some changes in origin’ s population structure, consequently, lead to emerge of socioeconomic changes especially in relation to gender. So, the migration is a gender process naturally. The present research seeks to analyze the consequences of husband’ s migration on socioeconomic status of left-behind women in rural areas. The research method is descriptive-analytical and sample size is 289 women in 22 sample villages of Mashhad County who their husband migrated to work. In this study, the examined women were identified by snowball method and participated in completing the questionnaire. The effects of men’ s immigration on rural women were evaluated in term of economic and social dimensions with 15 positive and 15 negative effects separately. From the women perspective, the results of paired Sample t-test showed that men’ s migration mainly had positive rather than negative effects; as in the social term, the average positive effects of migration of men is 3. 26 that significantly more than the average 1. 99 of negative effects; and in the economic dimension, the average 2. 54 of positive effects were more than the average 2. 23 of negative effects. In total, the average 2. 88 of positive effects of men migration were more than the average 2. 09 of negative effects. This is justified by the predominant type of men’ s migration, which is mostly daily, across the mashhad county. The results of variance analysis also showed that the average of negative effects of households with daily migration of husband were 2. 06 that this figure was increased to 2. 18 in short-term migration and to 2. 53 in long-term one. Therefore, if the migration of men from rural areas is daily, it will have a positive effect on the economic and social status of left-behind women in rural areas.

The present paper seeks to identify the obstacles and problems that women's rural entrepreneurs faced in the Oraman region of Sarvaba county, which is considered as one of the important hubs of rural tourism in the country. The aim is to remove the barriers to create an appropriate entrepreneurship environment for rural women to be employed in the field of tourism. Data gathering in the theoretical part was done by using documentary resources and in the practical section with survey method and based on distribution of questionnaire among 97 employed rural women in the tourism sector of the villages of Oraman section and 50 knowledgeable and specialized developers in rural issues who were chosen by using Snowy bullet method. Data analysis was performed by inferential statistics (factor analysis and path analysis) and indicates that in total, there are five factors including; weakness in planning, executive performance of public institutions and financial resources constraints, weaknesses in marketing and infrastructure service failures, social and cultural barriers of rural environment, individual weaknesses and educational constraints, and technical and practical barriers are the main obstacles that employed rural women entrepreneurs are facing in the rural tourism sector. Among them, the weakness of planning, the executive function of state institutions and financial constraints have the greatest impact on the inclination of employed rural women in the area of tourism to entrepreneurial.

The current study aims to investigate the relationship between Feminism tendencies, Self-objectification, Thin ideal internalization and Gender identity in female students Islamic Azad University of Sabzebvar (2018). This study was correlation-descriptive. The population of this study included 1856 emale students Islamic Azad University of Sabzebvar that Using Morgan table 318 persons were selected through Relative stratified random sampling method. The data was collected using Questionnaires of Burgad & Hides Feminism (1991), Neil and Fredrickson's self-objectification (1997), Stick and Grass thin-idealization (1998) and Schertzer, Laufer, Silvera, & Brad McBride Gender identity (2008). The collected data were analyzed using Spss20 software and descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation and Univariate regression methods. The results showed that there was no significant relationship between feminist tendencies and Self-objectification; But there was a significant negative correlation with Thin ideal internalization and a significant positive relationship with Gender identity. In addition, it was found that Feminism tendencies accounted for about 5. 4% of the variance in Thin ideal internalization and 5. 6% of the variance in Gender identity. Therefore, increasing Feminism tendencies can reduce Thin ideal internalization and increase the Gender identity of female students.

Marriage and divorce can be related to economic, sexual and institutional issues that make it easier or more difficult to create or maintain a new married life. In this study, the impact of economic variables on smooth and stochastic trends of marriage and divorce, with emphasis on sexual ratio and literacy rate control channels has been analyzed during 1969-2016 in Iran, using Autoregressive Distributed Lag model and Kalman filter. The results show that there is a significant and positive relationship between smooth divorce process and economic variables. Importantly, sexual ratio and literacy rate control channels are the channels that allow for accurate interpretations of unemployment and inflation on the smooth divorce process. In addition, sexual ratio and literacy rate have a positive and significant effect on the smooth marriage process. Therefore, the emphasis on gender-based alerting mechanism and literacy rate planning can have a double and synergic effect on improving the marriage process in Iran. Therefore, family formation in Iran is particularly influenced by gender control channels (especially sexual ratio) and institutional control channels (especially literacy rates) but the decision to divorce can be influenced by inflation and unemployment in addition to gender and institutional variables.