Abstract
Lusterware glaze is a notable form of ceramic and tile decoration during the Islamic era. It is skillfully applied to pottery of various shapes and sizes. An intriguing discovery is the oldest known gold decoration, found on a glass cup in Fustat (Old Cairo). The cup bears the inscription of Abdul Samad bin Ali, who was the ruler of Egypt in 157 AH (773 AD). Another piece, dating back to 163 AH (779 AD), is also believed to originate from Egypt.
Mason is well aware of the production of lusterware in Iran around 1100 AD, which coincided with the same period in Syria. The technique employed in creating this type of pottery in Iran closely resembled that of the Fatimids in Egypt, utilizing tin glazing in combination with a rich and opaque lead. The main production centers for lusterware in Iran during this era included Ray, Kashan, Saveh, Gorgan, and Takht-e-Suleiman. When it comes to the manufacturing centers of lusterware, Watson argues that Kashan was the sole center during this time, with pottery being exported from this city to the surrounding regions.
According to Pope, Akerman, and Bahrami, various centers such as Ray, Saveh, Jurjan, and Kashan existed during this era. Lusterware is typically categorized into three distinct periods: 1- Early golden vessels from the 3rd and 4th centuries AH (9th and 10th centuries AD), 2- Lusterware of the middle period spanning from the 5th to 9th centuries AH (11th to 15th centuries AD), and 3- Lusterware of the late period covering the 10th to 12th centuries AH (16th to 18th centuries AD). The peak of lusterware pottery production is associated with the middle centuries of the Islamic era, with key centers including Ray, Kashan, Saveh, Gorgan, and Takht-e-Suleiman.
Luster Artists specialize in the production of tiles, which are a significant part of their product range. In Iran, some of the earliest examples of luster works can be found in the form of star-shaped, hexagonal, and clay tiles used in the altar of Hazrat Reza's shrine and the cover of Hazrat Masoumeh's mausoleum. The grand altars in Qom and Mashhad, adorned with star-shaped tiles, represent the pinnacle of Kashan ceramic's evolution. During the Ilkhanid period, a large number of tiles were produced, but the production of ceramic in Kashan ceased in the first half of the 8th century AH (14th century AD). Consequently, the Mihrab, marginal, and star-shaped tiles commonly seen during the Ilkhanid period were no longer manufactured. Due to space constraints, luster tiles predominantly feature inscriptions in quadrilateral shapes. Therefore, the study of these tiles, which were widely produced in the 7th century AH (13th century AD) and often adorned with inscriptions, can provide valuable insights into the motifs and artistic styles of that era.
This Paper focuses on the examination of luster tiles and wares from the Iranian Art Museum, aiming to decipher the inscriptions and classify their artistic style. The research questions addressed are: What art style do the luster ware and tiles from the Iranian Art Museum represent? Which production centers were responsible for creating the samples under study?
The paper employs a descriptive-analytical approach, utilizing both library and field sources for data collection. Initially, the statistical population consistedf of luster tiles and wares from the Iranian Art Museum. Subsequently, through photography, description, and comparison of the tiles and ceramics with similar artifacts in various museums and collections, their artistic style was identified, and the potential production centers were explored.
The wares and tiles examined in this study are part of the exhibits showcased in the Hall of Iranian-Islamic Art and Library Hall at the Iranian Art Museum, which is under the auspices of the Cultural Institute of Museums of the Mustazafan Foundation. Situated in Marmar Palace in Tehran, the Iranian Art Museum houses 7 pieces adorned with luster glaze, including tiles and wares.
The uncertainty surrounding the exact location of the discovery of these artifacts has led to the proposal of a solution to determine the potential origin of pottery production. One method involves comparing these works with similar examples found in museums worldwide, especially in cases where there is no historical background available. By examining the works of luster at the Iranian Art Museum and comparing them with authentic pieces from various museums and collections (such as the Baltimore Museum of Art, the Antiquities Collection, the Porches Museum in New York, and auctions at Michel’s and Christie's), distinct characteristics have been identified. The Kashan style, as observed in luster works, features seated figures with narrow eyes and round faces, intricate designs of plant motifs, slime, and spirals on clothing, depictions of birds in flight, elaborate background decorations, and the use of Persian and Arabic inscriptions along with quatrains from renowned poets of the era like Baba Afzal Kashani, Kamaluddin Esmail Isfahani, and verses from Shahnameh. These characteristics are indicative of the Kashan style of luster products, which is prominently displayed in the museum's collection.
The Rubaʿi is written on the tiles under study; a Rubaʿi serves as a way to convey the themes of lyrical poems, a choice that was highly valued by artists during the Islamic era. Due to the limited space on the ceramic surface, it is evident that the potter primarily relied on a special format of poetry, which could concisely encapsulate judgmental and moral themes. Hence, the Rubaʿi, consisting of four lines, was deemed most suitable. In terms of the relationship between image and text, there is no direct correlation between the images and text found on the tiles at the Iranian Art Museum. One of the featured poems is the Rubaʿi “May God keep it wherever it is ". This particular verse was initially discovered on a piece of pottery in Nishapur, and subsequently, it gained popularity, appearing on tiles at Takht-e-Suleyman and potsherds in various museums. Another Rubaʿi, which discusses the night's dual nature with a clear separation and two sides of light, is also present on the tile of Takht-e-Suleyman, dating back to the 7th century AH (13th century AD).
Epic themes, including the story of Bijan and Manijeh, Rubaʿi were among the popular subjects of potters and tile makers. The Rubaʿi read on the tiles of the art museum are of a romantic and philosophical type, and the potter artist used a special rule in the inscription that the writing and images did not interfere with each other, and sometimes he surrounded the inscription with a different color.
Figurative and non-figurative tiles were produced in the 7th century AH (13th century AD) and were mainly decorated with Persian poems and Quranic verses and were used for non-religious buildings. Nevertheless, star and cross tiles with animal designs and couplets on the border have been obtained from tombs such as Imamzade Jafar Damghan and Abdul Samad Natanz mausoleum, which indicates the use of figural tiles in Shiite tombs. There is also a possifbility that these tiles belonged to a religious building.
In general, according to the existence of chronology on one of the tiles (year 738 AH, 1337 AD) and the study of the poems and the type of motifs and comparison with the examples in other museums, it seems that these works belong to the middle Islamic ages (12th and 13th centuries AD). However, for a definitive opinion, interdisciplinary studies such as petrography and elemental analysis of samples can correctly determine their production location and provide valuable information to researchers.