Reviewing the literature of inequality decomposition by subgroups shows that between-group inequality (urban and rural areas) often accounts for a small share of total inequality. Therefore, in interpreting the result, researchers give less emphasis on designing appropriate policies for removing inequality across those areas. In this paper, we employed maximum between-group inequality approach for getting a better understanding of the importance and the role of between urban and rural areas inequality in overall inequality in Iran. The analyses have been done using annual data for 2004, 2008, 2012, and 2016 drawn from the Iranian Urban and Rural Household Income and Expenditure Survey. As expected, the results of conventional decomposition method (Theil index) show that inequality between urban and rural areas have a contribution of only 11. 25 percent to the overall inequality. However, the results of maximum between-group inequality method show that the between-group inequality plays a more important role in overall inequality. In particular, the results of this technique show that the contribution of between-group inequality to the overall inequality is almost twice that obtained from conventional decomposition method. The important policy implication of the results is that economic policies aiming at reducing inequality should be much more concerned about this component of overall inequality in Iran. Furthermore, the findings of this paper reveal that overall inequality has been reduced after the implementation of Targeted Subsidies Reform in Iran.

Considering that a high percentage of the population in Iran are living in rural areas, study of problems facing rural communities including analysis of income distribution and its trend in preparing development plans is very necessary. This study aims to measure income inequality in rural areas in 1989-2009 periods by using Gini coefficient. For this purpose, data from households' expenditure survey were used. Results showed that during the period, income inequality in rural areas of the country was decreased slowly, but still there was considerable difference among provinces. On this basis, allocation of resources to those regions which suffered from unequal income distibutin was recommended.

The purpose of the present research was to identify the dimensions and components of educational inequality from the viewpoint of managers and students in educational areas of Mashhad. The research method is quantitative with type of structural equation modeling using correlation. The statistical population included 205336 students and 2019 managers. From this population, 384 students and 323 managers were selected as the statistical sample through stratified sampling and Cochran formula. The instrument for collecting data was a researcher- made questionnaire. The data were analyzed by using Pearson correlation coefficient, multiple regression and T-test. The findings of the study indicated a significant and direct relationship between the independent variable indicators including the family background factors, school process, achievements and outcomes, and input with educational inequality as the dependent variable. The most significant variables of inequality were family background, school process, non-cognitive input and output. In other words, improving the mentioned variables could decrease the educational inequality in Mashhad seven educational districts. Furthermore, the results of modeling for structural equations indicated a relationship between dependents and independent variables. With regard to the modeling indicators, it can be argued that the proposed model had acceptable fitness and there was an optimal fit between the structured model and the obtained data. Therefore, the above-mentioned variables can be properly included in a final model of research.

Introduction: In the recent century, urbanization ratio has increased four times in Iran and now three quarters of the population lives in urban areas. Rapid urban transition of Iran is associated with an increase in differentiation and inequality not only among cities, but also within cities and among urban districts. Thus, one of the key features of Tehran metropolis is regional and spatial inequality. In this regard, the main aim of this study is to investigate the extent and patterns of spatial inequality using the socio-economic index in 22 districts of Tehran. Method: The study was designed in the developmental leveling framework and descriptive-analytical as research method was applied. Multiple criteria decision making (MCDM) procedure was used to measure the development of the districts. TOPSIS and factor analysis as technical methods and 16 social-economic indicators from 2011 census data were used. Findings: Results indicated the highest degree of development belong to region 3 and the lowest belong to district 17 of Tehran. The highest score of development, respectively, for the 3, 1, 2, 6 and 5 districts and the lowest one for the districts of 17, 19, 18, 15, 16 and 20, respectively, were found. The Results of TOPSIS and factor analysis techniques in measuring and ranking of the 22 districts of Tehran based on socio-economic development index were almost similar with a very high positive correlation (0. 99). Using cluster analysis, we classified the 22 districts of Tehran into five groups in terms of socio-economic development levels; four districts including 3, 1, 2 and 6 were grouped as developed areas. The districts of 5 and 7 were relatively developed areas. Six districts of 4, 8, 22, 13, 21, and 11 were categorized as areas with moderate development level. Five districts (10, 14, 9, 12 and 20) were in the less developed group. Finally, the five districts including 16, 15, 18, 19 and 17 were classified as underdeveloped (very poor) areas in Tehran. Discussion: Results indicated that there are significant differences between urban districts of Tehran city in terms of the socio-economic development index. Underdeveloped and less developed regions are located in the south and southeast of Tehran city; moderate and relatively developed areas are found in the central and west parts of Tehran; finally, developed (rich) areas are located in the northern half of the Tehran city. In general, spatial inequality in various aspects of development is the distinguishing feature of Tehran metropolis and also, urban spatial inequality is a key driver of urban unsustainable development

Introduction: What is the analysis of social capital in rural areas can be achieved by the concept of social capital, particularly with spatial dimensions can be defined as a comprehensive approach to achieving social stability in rural areas to be considered. Therefore, the necessary condition for the development of any society, especially rural communities, is comprehensive development, the establishment of warm relations, the development of social cohesion, the development of social participation and, most importantly, mutual trust (individual, society and government), which this structure they are components of social capital that are understood in the context of space / spatial. The study of social capital in space / spatial is a new attitude that geography science is its shareholder and as a distinction with other sciences. Some sociologists have pointed out in their studies that social relations are based on spatial, which makes a difference. In other words, society is necessarily built in spatial, and the spatial organization of society plays a role in how society functions. Some studies have shown that rural areas have a much lower social capital than urban areas. In relation to Iran’ s villages, in the past, the level of solidarity and social cohesion, participation, and trust has been higher due to the homogeneous environment and the ethnic relationships that villagers have with each other. But today, each of these concepts in rural areas has become faint in terms of bridging social capital. Method: The methodology in this paper is analytical methodology based on qualitative and quantitative methods. The sample volume was selected by stratified random in the GIS by means Hawths Analysis Tools (6 villages from each stratum), that a total of 18 villages with 378 people were selected from total villages in Khorasan Razavi province. The research tool is a survey and a questionnaire. Validity of social capital questionnaire by Bartlett test and KMO was 0. 71 and 0. 79 for Cronbach’ s alpha coefficient. In order to select social capital indicators, the indexes were indexed initially with a critical analysis of the studies carried out and in the second step; the primary indicators were screened to identify the social capital indicators in sustainable rural development and were limited to the main index. Then, these indices were analyzed according to their frequency in different sources and the main indicators were extracted. Then a questionnaire was prepared of these indices. Finally, by conducting surveys and surveys by experts and scientific experts of the country, a suitable and indigenous collection of social capital indicators in rural areas was presented. Findings: The TOPSIS technique to ranking well in the rural areas of the sample were classified that Dizadiz, Gohardasht, Gholezu, Barabad, Shurab and Kheirabad with high social capital; Garmab, Goruh, Keriz, Abgahi, Jabuz and Sedeh intermediate social capital and so Ostay, Hesar, Merichegan, Safiabad, Robat and Pivejan with low social capital. Also the results show that Dizadiz is the highest social capital and Pivejan the lowest social capital. Also, the status of social capital indicators by the classes studied also showed that the first group (plain villages with a little distance from the city and a large number of households) has the highest average in relation to participation indicators, social networks, membership in NGO and public institutions, the satisfaction of institutions, as well as knowledge. The second group (foothill villages and with a medium distance from the city and a medium of households) have a high average in relation to the social solidarity index, and the third group (Mountainous villages with far away from the city and the little households) have a very favorable situation in terms of social norms, trust and security. The results show that of the 18 villages studied Dizadiz is the highest social capital and Pivejan the lowest social capital. Discussion: the rural areas suffer of lack of social capital that is one of the most important types of development capitals and as a strategy for achieving rural sustainable development. Part of the social inequality of social capital in the studied villages is due to the difference in the level of bonding social capital and bridging social capital. Lack of investment and attention in strengthening and developing of bridging social capital Including scant Awareness and informing villagers about informal and voluntary organizations (NGOs), little and discontinuous relationships and interactions, poor social networks, lack of provision for participation of villagers in various planning and. . . . In general, the lack of participation of villagers in social, economic, and political actions has led to the lack of development and strengthening of bridging social capital among rural areas studied. Therefore, achieving the desired state of social capital and reducing the spatial inequalities of social capital requires filling the gap between bonding social capital and bridging social capital in rural areas. The important issue that our rural areas are extremely confronted and can be considered as one of the main reasons for the mustiness of rural areas in Iran.

Geographically uneven spaces allocated a large percentage of land in developing countries. One of the consequences of unequal and uneven development is undoubtedly rooted in the unequal distribution of resources, a lack of playing opportunities that it can lead to a split between the counties, cities and even rural areas of the country. It appeared to be a consequence of poverty, migration rural - urban and marginalization, increased crime, corruption, prostitution, followed. This paper deals with the geographical analysis of inequalities in rural areas of Central Iran using scientific papers, books and documents related to the investigation by a cross - sectional. Provinces of Tehran, Qazvin, Hamedan, Yazd and Demographic information and sample information collected have been selected by systematic sampling from 83 villages to examine the target population to be sampled and analyzed using the Gini coefficient model changes during different years 1365, 1375 and 1385. Indicate that the findings in the rural areas of Yazd province inequality spaces geographic sections 65 and 0.42, in section 75, in rural areas of Hamadan with 0.36 and in 1385 had the highest rates of inequality in the villages in Qazvin province is equal to with 0.79. Shows the results of the indicators, the indicators of social inequality in 1365, the highest rate in 75 years in the communications parameters have been observed in 1385, the largest imbalance access to health services.

Measuring the income inequality prepares an adequate estimation of Income distribution. In the first case, we investigate the trend of income inequality in Hamedan province and whole of country -urban and rural areas separately are checked- using of the indexes of income inequality (Gini coefficient and share of income decile) in period 1376-85. The results of investigating Gini coefficient in urban and rural areas of this Province show their averages in this period are 0.38 and 0.39 respectively. These results imply that income inequality in rural areas of this province is higher than urban areas. Also, except for 78-76 and 82-81 years, Gini coefficient in rural areas than urban areas. Comparing Gini coefficient in this period indicates that income distribution in rural areas is relatively more unequal than urban areas. Moreover, the average of Gini coefficient in urban areas of the whole country is about 0.37 and in rural areas is 0.39. Fore there more, the most inequality of income distribution is in 1378 and 1379 whereas the less inequality is in 1382 and 1383. In the second case, we investigate the effect of the minimum of wage and inflation on income distribution. The results indicate increasing of the minimum of wage has a significant effect to descend inflation. So that, decreasing the 10 percent of the minimum of wage descends Gini coefficient 0.16 percent. As well as, inflation is a main and determinant variable on income distribution. The high level of Inflation results in the high level of inequality.

Social justice is one of the fundamental concepts of sustainable urban development. To elaborate the concept of social justice, is essential to review and comment from urban areas, basic facilities and basic services. Therefore, this article is trying, to show how the rate and distribution of space health indicators - health, religious, social - cultural, sports - recreational, administrative - Services, and Research in the city of Mashhad. It also analyzes the pay level of enjoyment in the regions of Mashhad and describe the effect of equitable distribution of facilities and urban sustainability a provides possible solutions for achieving optimal postural. For this purpose the above index was measured as separated regions, by the Morris model and ArcGis software. The results of the study show that 25 percent of the city regions (including regions 1, 8 and Samen) are enjoying, 25 percent of areas (including areas 7, 9 and 11) are entitled, 8/3 percent (only the region 4) are average, 25 percent of areas (including areas 2, 3 and 10) are excluded and finally 16/7 percent of areas (including areas 5 and 6) are very deprived. Correlation coefficient calculation between the number and degree of development of regions shows a negative relationship about -0/656. Because gaining the people's participation is important in the path of sustainable development Therefore, Level partnerships people were assessed by different parameters, including social participation in political parties, associations and different...Then the correlation coefficient was calculated between the Amount of social participation People with the Level of enjoyment regions in terms of indicators mentioned, that the result shows a negative relationship (-0/13) poor between them.

IntroductionRegional inequalities between border and central regions of most third world countries is inevitable, that created Centralized system of planning structures in the historical process. Border areas of Iran have 16 provinces and central regions of the 14 provinces (including Alborz in Tehran Province). Approximately 50 percent of the area (50.7 percent of the population) belonging in the country's border regions. This revealed that 50 percent of the country's development should be concentrated in border areas. Be created regional balance in the space of Iran. While the focus of the facilities and services in centre the remoteness and deprivation some of the border provinces.