In this study, the ectomycorhizal fungi from BEECH trees in highland BEECH forests of Farim (Mazandaran province) were identified based on extraction of DNA from roots and sequencing the ITS region of nuclear ribosomal DNA. For this purpose, in the altitude of 1500-2100 meters A. S. L, 30 plot and one plant per each plot were selected randomly and samples were taken from roots in depths of 10 cm and 60 cm away from tree trunk. The DNA was extracted from classified root tips. ITS nrDNA was replicated and sequenced using ITS1F and ITS4B or ITS4 primer pairs. Comparison of the obtained sequences with sequences deposited in the gene NCBI database revealed the presence of 15 species of ectomycorrhizal fungi in the roots of these plants. Among the identified species, 12 species including Russula chloroides, Cortinarius trivialis, Russula brevipes, Russula faginea, Russula integriformis, Cortinarius rigens, Cortinarius alpinus, Cortinarius collinitus, Lactarius hepaticus, Lactarius chrysorrheus, Cortinarius alboaggregatus, and Hebeloma bulbiferum are reported for the first time to Iran mycoflora. The genus Cortinarius showed the highest species diversity in the studied area followed by Russula, Lactarius, and Inocybe. The identification of ectomycorrhizal fungi could help us use their potentials in the regeneration and optimal management programs of forests and plantations.

BEECH wood after drying and milling was reacted with alkylatig and acetylating agents. Untreated BEECH wood meal was reacted with benzyl chloride in the presence of sodium hydroxide. Also BEECH wood meal in another experiment was pulped with ethylene glycol as pulping liquor for removing lignin and the delignified BEECH wood was reacted with benzyl chloride in the presence of NaOH. Untreated wood and delignified wood after benzylation show thermal flowability as determined by thermal mechanical analysis (TMA). The benzylation products of untreated and delignified wood were acetylated with acetic acid and acetic anhydride mixture. The thermal flowability of acetylation products were measured by TMA analysis. 1H NMR and FTIR spectra of products were also recorded.

BEECH forests of northern Iran in the Hyrcanian ecosystem are considered as the richest and most valuable forests in the northern hemisphere. The present study was carried out in the part of the district No 3, Nav, Asalem (3770 ha) in the west of Guilan Province. In order to identify the flora, the Chorology, life forms and growth forms, herbaceous understory plants within the BEECH forests were studied. Totally, 109 plant species belonging to 75 genera and 41 families were identified in the Asalem BEECH forests, Which in the species of Vicia abbreviata spreng. of the Papilionaceae family and Hieracium vulgatum spreng. of the Asteraceae family have been reported for the first time in Guilan province. Families of Dryopteridaceae, Lamiaceae, Orchidaceae, Poaceae and Papilionaceae comprised a total of 35 species (32.1%). The most important life forms belonged to geophytes (48.6%) and hemicryptophytes (40.3%) in the this region. Chorological study also showed the dominance of the Hyrcanian phytogeographical region. In terms of growth forms, frequency of forbs, grasses and ferns was 77%, 12% and 11%, respectively. The presence of 109 herbaceous plants in understory showed the higher herbaceous species richness in this forest which is due to Asalem BEECH forests location that lies in suitable geographical position and site under the impact of Hyrcanian climate. The higher Europe-Siberian vegetation confirms this issue.

The aim of this research was to describe characteristics of natural canopy gaps and gap area fraction as an environmental influence on the success of BEECH seedling establishment in mature BEECH stands. All canopy gaps and related forest parameters were measured within three 25 ha areas within the Gorazbon district of the University of Tehran’s Kheyrud Experimental Forest. Results showed an average of 3 gaps/ha occurred in the forest and gap sizes ranged from 19 to 1250 m2 in size. The most frequent (58%) canopy gaps were <200 m2. In total, canopy gaps covered 9.3% of the forest area. Gaps <400 m2 in size were irregular in shape, but larger gaps did not differ significantly in shape from a circle. Most gaps (41%) were formed by a single tree-fall event and BEECH made up 63% of gap makers and 93% of gap fillers. Frequency and diversity of tree seedlings were not significantly correlated with gap size. The minimum gap size that contained at least one BEECH gap-filling sapling (<1.3 m tall) was 23.7 m2. The median gap size containing at least one BEECH gap-filling sapling was 206 m2 and the maximum size was 1808 m2. The management implications from our study suggest that the creation of small and medium sized gaps in mixed BEECH forest should mimic natural disturbance regimes and would be consider as near to nature in the study area.

Genetic structure of Fagus oriental is Lipsky was investigated in 14 populations along the distribution range of this species in Hyrcanian zone through 12 Isozyme loci. Results were compared with 160 BEECH populations from putative species tunica, F.moesiaca, and Eurupian BEECH F.sylvatica. Mean allelic frequencies in oriental BEECH of Iran, in comparison with other BEECHes indicated that there were very few alleles, which are specific for one or few adjacent regions, so that alleles MDHN A and GOT-B/A were observed just in Iran. There were some clinal variations found in allelic profiles. The frequency 'of the slowly migrating allele, MDH-a/E, almost absent in the west, increases towards the East up to more than 40% in Alborz Mts. There is no concordance between the trends of genetic diversity and multiplicity. Alborz Mts., in  spite of low diversity's the most differentiated region. Considerable genetic differentiation in Iran BEECH forests, originated from tertiary, emphasised the fact that conservation of these unique forest types is not only important as a guarantee for biological diversity, resistance against climate changes, but also as gene reserves for revival of the degraded ecosystems. Conservation of these forests amounts to the conservation of thousands of years in evolutionary processes of environmental adaptability.

Due to their significance for carbon sequestration and ecosystem management, information on decay dynamic of deadwood and its total decay time are of great importance to ecologists and forest managers. This study was conducted in Kheirud forest of Nowshahr to study the decay process of BEECH and hornbeam deadwood. Therefore, 72 BEECH and hornbeam dead trees were randomly selected. For each sample tree, information on species, diameter, decay classes and slope gradient were recorded. The cubic cut samples with 5 cm length, width and height in two perpendicular aspects were taken from each decaying stump.30 and 16 years of decaying time were shown to be needed for 95% dry mass of dead BEECH and hornbeam logs, respectively. In addition, the required periods for passing through all stages of decay for BEECH and hornbeam dead trees were 27 and 21 years, respectively. A strong relation (R2=0.8) between density and decay stage of dead trees was indicated. Therefore, the density of dead wood was concluded to significantly decline with increased decay stage in both species.

Introduction and Objective: Canopy gaps in different sizes have been created by the implementation of different silvicultural practices such as single-tree selection in BEECH forest stands in Hyrcanian forests. Investigating the effects of forest gaps on the characteristics of trees and soil in the forest ecosystem can be very helpful in planning silvicultural operations. Shadetolerant BEECH trees in this ecosystem are of ecological and economic importance and knowing the reaction of such a valuable tree can be effective for forest management and selection of forestry methods. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to determine the correlation between structure, fine roots properties of BEECH trees and soil biology(MBC, MBN and MBP) in different gaps (n = 15) created by single-tree selection system with competition index in BEECH forest stands in Mazandaran-Sari province. Material and Methods: In the BEECH forest stand, 15 forest gaps were identified including three classes of small (80-130), medium (175-131) and large (176-300m2) size and five replicates were selected for each level. In four cardinal positions of each gap, BEECH trees were selected and their height, diameter at breast height, crown diameter, area, volume and fine roots as well as competition index were measured. Results: Pearson correlation coefficients showed a significant positive correlation between competition index with height, DBH, crown diameter, crown area and length of Bole and also negative correlation with height to diameter ratio (H/D) of BEECH trees. There was a significant negative correlation between competition index and microbial biomass nitrogen and a significant positive correlation with microbial biomass carbon to microbial biomass nitrogen ratio (MBC/MBN). With increasing density, specific root length and specific area of fine roots, the values of competition index increased. There was a significant correlation between some structural characteristics of BEECH trees with fine root characteristics at the edge of gaps. Correlation coefficients between fine root characteristics of BEECH trees show significant correlation between some variables. Conclusion: In general, the results of the study showed that forest management through the application of single-tree selection system and the formation of canopy gaps in BEECH stand has influenced the structural characteristics and fine roots of BEECH trees six years after the creation of gaps.

The process of natural regeneration including establishment of seedling under dead and mother trees ensure sustainable productivity in the forests. Qualifying the impact of dead trees on the density of establishment seedling in closed and open canopy in a mixed BEECH forest was studied. According to the field inspection, compartments 112 and 214 in Kheiroudkenar forests were chosen for sampling. Dead trees were considered as the center of sampling plot with different radius. Also in a 20-30 meter distance from dead trees, sound mother trees of same species were chosen. At the center of each plot, seedlings were counted in a circular sample plots with diffident radius. The results show that number of BEECH seedlings is higher than that of hornbeam and there is significant difference between establishments of seedling between dead and sound trees in an open canopy. Seealing density in open stand is higher than that under mother trees. Frequency of seedling around the dead trees was maximum. The higher decay class, the higher is the establishment of seedling. Also the number of seedlings is higher in small sample plots (100m2) which are closer to the dead trees. The results showed that the maintenance of dead trees is important and effective in establishment of natural regeneration in mixed BEECH forest.

The present study aimed to examine the effects of stratification on tree layers diversity and some features of BEECH trees in Hyrcanican forest, Guilan, Asalem. Also, interactions between tree diversity and some characteristics of BEECH leaves was investigated. The Nine research plots are sampled as a gradient from pure BEECH stands to mixed stands with up to 9 deciduous tree species with three replications for each. Each research site had a size of 2500 m2 (50 m × 50 m). In each tree layers, diversity indices, crown diameter, DBH and frequency of BEECH tree were measured within plots. The results showed that the highest value of richness and diversity indices belonged to the second tree layer. The highest amount of basal area and crown diameter were observed in the first tree layer (overstorey). Regression analysis showed that tree layer diversity and richness measures were significantly positively correlated with fresh and dry weight of BEECH leaves. Correlation coefficients indicated that BEECH frequency was significantly positively correlated with weight of fresh leaves and negatively with dry weight of leaves. There was significantly negatively correlation between basal area of BEECH trees with fresh and dry weight of leaves within stands. In general, it can be stated that diversity-functioning relationships might occur in the tree-layer of the deciduous BEECH forest under investigation.

The establishment and survival of seedlings are one of the main objectives of forest management which ensures continues production. This reaserch aims at investigating the dead trees effect on BEECH and hornbeam seedlings in Masal's forests. For this purpose, 30 dead trees were selected, and the control trees were selected in four geographical aspects around the dead trees. They were the same as dead trees in terms of species and diameter. In general, 30 and 120 sampling plots were laid out around the dead trees and control trees, respectively. The quantity and quality of seedlings (crown symetry, being multi-trunk and monopodial growth) were recorded. In addition, the volume of dead trees was calculated by measuring their diameter and height, and also their decay classes were studied. According to the results, abundance of seedlings doesn't significantly differ among decay and canopy coverage classes, whereas dead tree's diameter classes significantly affect the seedlings abundance. The forked seedlings were significantly higher than other forms of stem growth. Abundance of seedlings, in terms of quantity and quality (forked-form) around the dead trees showed significant differences with control trees. Based on the findings of this research and the overall impact of dead trees on regeneration, it is recommended that large dead trees are considered as a seedbed in the management of natural regeneration in forest stands.