The ancient monuments in the north of Iran, particularly in Gilan and Tonekabon, have not been able to resist natural destruction over the previous times due to the rainy climate and humidity. Although less than several centuries pass from the creation of historical monuments in Tonekabon, there remain only the names of ancient monuments in the memory of people and in the historical and geographical manuscripts. On the other hand the construction materials used in the historical monuments in the north of Iran, which were mainly wood, stone and mortar, expedited their destruction. Therefore, except for the religious sites which the people tried to repair as soon as they saw any erosion, and except for the Markouh Castle, whose remnants of stony walls have survived, there is no trace of the monuments set up during the ancient era and even during the first centuries of the post-Islam Iranian history in Tonekabon. However, the presence of many hills and dunes is an evidence of the many ancient monuments in this land over the past times. The present article tries to use existing sources in order to cast a glance important fortresses.

Qoheston is a region in the southeastern Khorasan which includes Kashmar, Tabas, Ferdos, Birjand, Qaen, Torbate Haidarie, Khaf and Taibad cities. This region is surrounded by Sabzevar and Nishaboor from north, central desert from west, Sistan and Kerman from south and Naomid plains from east. In addition to the geographical and climatic characteristics of the region the abundance of historical castles characterizes it from the other parts of Iran. This paper aims at study political, social, economic and geographical history of the Qohestan in order to understand the Qohestan culture. Moreover, the functionality of the castles the as well as the position and distribution of the castles also were studied.

The consistency and protection of Khorasan state's social life was fully dependent on the fortresses due to some elements such as boundary position and Afgan, Tatar, Torkaman group's plunder. In addition to the establishment of military stability of the government, such a fortresses were a place to conduct commercial _agricultural activities and also to store foodstuffs and military procurement. Regarding the importance of the topic, the present research answer the question that what was the role of Khorasan fortresses in social life during Afsharie? In order to answer this question we test the hypothesis that the important functions of castles such as protection of people's lives and property, establishing political stability caused the different claimants of throne made particular endeavors to strengthen and to provide procurement in domestic castles and surrounding satellite ones as their government's center of gravity. Using historical method and collecting library data from first _hand resources, this research described and classified military and political transformations related to Khorasan. Finally it analyzed these features and influences on the throne's claimant empowerment.

The Ismā, 'iliyah is one of the most important sects of Shī, ʿ, ite in the early and middle centuries of Islam, and despite the written historical sources indicating their presence in Arrajā, n State in the southwest of Iran, their castles and fortifications in this area, especially in the mountainous area to the north and east of it, has not been investigated and studied archaeologically so far. The most important goal of this article is the archaeological investigation and study of the castles attributed to them in this area. Therefore, this article seeks to answer that to what extent the number of castles attributed to this political-religious movement is consistent with the historical texts? The method of gathering the data of the article is based on library sources and archaeological survey of the studied castles and also has a descriptive-historical research method with a cultural history approach. The results of the following article show that due to the strategic geographical location and the economic importance of the Arrajā, n state for Ismā, 'iliyah, they entered the Arrajan state from the beginning of the fifth century AH. According to historical texts and comparison with archeological evidence, there have been more than four strong forts of the Ismā, 'iliyah bases that indicates the presence of followers of this sect in Arrajā, n region and their political and military activities in this region, especially during the Seljuk period.

The Manor’, s castles of Bahar County are among the plains castles that were built during the late Islamic centuries (from the early Qajar period to the first Pahlavi) due to the weakness of the central government and the resulting conditions and also with the purpose of residence. And the residence of local rulers and their entourage has been established. In the construction of castles in the region, like all plains in the plains, natural hills and heights have been considered for the nobility of the surrounding areas and better defense power. One of the main features of the master castles under study is the different use of the tower structure in the castle building, which over time have had different functions such as habitation and surveillance. The main decorations of the studied castles in the lordship section, especially in the capitals and pedestals of the porch columns, as well as in the design of the plasterwork inside the building, which have been executed with various plant motifs in the form of Islamic and Khatai designs. These buildings, which function as safe local government centers, have been noted in the past. In this research, the mentioned castles are studied with the aim of examining the architectural structures and decorations used in them, as well as analyzing the obvious common features among them. Investigating the reason for the formation of this group of buildings and their role in the security of the region during the Qajar period is the most important issue that must be answered during the present study. The present study has explained the situation of this group of buildings with a "field-descriptive-analytical" approach. The method of data collection in this study is based on library studies and field surveys.

Forg Castle is a mountain fortress dating back to the Late Islamic period (from the Afsharid to the Qajar era). Due to its strategic location and unique architecture, the castle has always attracted attention and necessitates precise documentation using modern methods. Drone photogrammetry is one of the modern technologies that, with the advancement of technology in recent decades, has become increasingly used in this type of study. Whether used alone or in combination with other techniques, it has been widely employed in the 3D modeling of immovable cultural heritage and archaeological sites. This technology creates accurate and photorealistic 3D models of historical structures and sites using 2D images. Such documentation is valuable for conservation efforts and sustainable development. The present applied research was conducted with the aim of assessing the capabilities of drone photogrammetry in a mountainous castle with significant elevation differences. The study focused on modeling Forg Castle for documentation and the creation of a 3D map. It was carried out in three stages: fieldwork, software processing, and archival research, using an analytical approach. As a result, a 3D model of the mountainous Forg Castle was produced with true texture and a Ground Sample Distance (GSD) of 0.97 centimeters per pixel. The accuracy of the results was evaluated using four ground control points (GCPs) and three check points, indicating the high performance of drone photogrammetry as a fast and effective method for the documentation and 3D modeling of mountainous castles and their architectural features despite elevation differences with a ground accuracy of 6.2 centimeters.

To balance the needs and actual or potential facilities, mankind has tried along with time. Water, ground, soil, road is from environmental factors forming a living place while one or more factors may play more important role depending on some situations. The culture is created due to people interactions and is progressing longitudinally and affects human activities. Ignoring the environment makes the debate impossible on cultural and behavioral conditions. Culture creates sites and phenomena around the spaces and places. Architecture is one of the main sites of culture in environment. Natural characteristics in the region of Ghahestan made the Ismailia – in the Islamic middle centuries-to establish defensive buildings due to cultural and religious conditions. The results made them to be in accordance with the political and natural conditions of the time. In spite of some environmental limitations, they provided their need in the environment and caused some sort of cultural and environmental accordance in the region. This study introduces the Kouh Zardan castle of Zirkouh city in South Khorasan. This castle has spent two different residence eras. The castle was used as a defensive place at the first era may be known as Saljooghi. Ilkhani’ s were the second residents. The main question of the research is, what role has the natural geography of the area played in the castle of Castle Zardan Mountain architecture? The castle of Zardan Mountain has been built with regard to the environmental conditions of the area and the impact of the environment in the castle architecture space is not only in the use of native materials, but other factors such as climate, altitude, distance and proximity to water resources, geological structure and. . . has played a key role in the formation of the castle. This paper is descriptive and analytical and its data has been through library resources and field surveys.

Ecololgy is a greek word, that eco means life environment, home and house and logy means knowledge. Ecologic system is a system in cluding population, environment. Technology system by effecting eachother in these recent decades. In spite of various administrator development of rural areas have been ignored. Although immigration tocities is growing day to day and the population of rural areas as a center of agriculture population have been decreased and the number of city population is increasing. Challenge in ecology and natural areas has coused not using best from water source and decreasing under ground water and this has caused the limitation of water source of and increasing desert also the scope of little in creasing in rural areas has decreased the job opportunities and as are ssult has increased the scop of unemployment that has increased a lot of immigration to cities. Garizat part like most of our areas in our country has ecologic potential andcan be used in different part like tourist attraction. The way of doing consideration has been like library and squar based on the result of the research no enough paying attention and no required enough loons caused nature phenoment a have not been used in development. One of the reason of this situation is no paying attention to phenoment ecologic communication after entering industry to these section.

Background and Objectives: One of the significant gaps in the research on Arjan Koureh is the lack of archaeological investigation into the geopolitical position of this region in different historical periods, particularly regarding its historical castles. Castles and military fortifications are crucial material evidence that sheds light on the organization, political-administrative governance, and social structure of ancient societies. They played vital roles in protecting territorial sovereignty, defending populations, securing communication routes, and fostering sustainable development and economic prosperity. Before delving into the historical and archaeological evidence related to Arjan Koureh, it is essential to examine the research on related names, such as Roimhar. Due to a lack of detailed knowledge about the region's historical geography, some researchers have inadvertently mixed information related to these different names, leading to illogical conclusions. For instance, much of the knowledge about the social life of Roimhar city in the Islamic period may actually pertain to the Roimhar Koureh of Arjan during the same era. While carefully examining historical sources, Gaubeh considers the location of Roimhar to be in the Handijan Valley and Zidon. However, limited research has been conducted on the castles of Rustaq Roimhar, with only a few references made by Gaobeh to the Gol, Gulab, and Dez castles in this area. By analyzing the material documents of seals and coins related to Roimhir and Rivardshir in the pre-Islamic period and the Roimhir mentioned in Islamic era sources, Miri has argued that the primary Roimhir is located on the coast of Bushehr, while the second Roimhir, the one referred to in Islamic period sources, is situated in the current Zaytoun Region. The primary objective of this research is to determine the boundaries of Rustaq Rishehr in the Arjan region of southwestern Iran and to ascertain its historical geopolitical position through the examination and archaeological study of its historical castles. Methodes: This research employs a combined approach of historical analysis and archaeological investigation. Through systematic field surveys and comprehensive examinations, archaeological evidence of castles and other military fortifications within the study area was documented and recorded. Additionally, by studying new library resources and ancient texts containing information about Arjan Koureh and the boundaries of Rustaq Rishehr, the historical castles mentioned were identified. By integrating historical analysis and archaeological evidence, this research aims to define the boundaries of Rustaq Rishehr based on geographical and natural features, and to examine the historical castles as material evidence of the region's defensive organization and historical administrative borders. Findings: References from historical sources, when compared with archaeological evidence, indicate the unique capability of the Zaidon Plain as an agricultural Rustaq and administrative center during the Sasanian to Seljuk periods. Its boundaries were protected by strong castles and fortifications. The historical castles examined in this research reflect the historical geopolitical position of this Rustaq from the Sasanian to Seljuk era, particularly its political-administrative dominance over part of southwestern Iran, namely the Arjan district, extending from Dena Mountains to the Persian Gulf. The location of the studied castles within this Rustaq demonstrates the political authority's deliberate efforts to establish these castles on hills overlooking communication routes and the borders of neighboring Rustaq. This awareness and understanding of the geographical environment led to the utilization of natural features, such as hillocks (like the Ghol and Golab castles) and conical shapes (like the Kalat of Hendijan), for the construction of stable and sustainable defensive facilities for the protective domain of Rishahr Rustaq. Archaeological evidence and historical texts suggest that these castles were inhabited from at least the Sasanian period until the end of the Seljuk period, playing a significant role in the sustainable development of this Rustaq. Some of these castles (Ghol and Golab castles) held strategic importance for the political-administrative authority of southwestern Iran from the early Islamic period until the end of the Qajar period in the regions of Kohgiluyeh and Khuzestan. Historical resources and archaeological evidence indicate that Rustaq Rishehr was located in the western part of the city of Arjan. Ibn Hawqal clearly mapped the position of Rustaq Rishehr in the western part of the Arjan district along the coastal region of the Persian Gulf. The eastern limit of this Rustaq extended to the hills surrounding the Ghol and Golab castles, while the western boundary reached areas near Mahshahr and Hendijan today. A hilly region, approximately 50 kilometers long and seven kilometers wide, lies between the low and relatively flat agricultural areas of this Rustaq and the coastal port of Mahrouban. Additionally, another hilly area extends 110 kilometers in length and 15 kilometers in width between the mentioned sections and the Arjan Plain. Conclusion: By integrating information from Islamic geographical and historical texts with archaeological studies, it becomes evident that Arjan Kureh was a distinct political-administrative region in the Islamic era, centered in the city of Dirjan. Its boundaries extended from the city of Sardasht to Zidon, reaching as far as Omidiyeh and Hendijan. The archaeological evidence related to the region's defensive and administrative organization, such as historical castles, as well as its topographical features and natural boundaries, such as rivers, helps to define these boundaries. The available archaeological evidence, including pottery, architectural works, and the remains of watchtowers and defenses, combined with historical sources, highlights the importance and geopolitical position of this rural district from the Sasanian period until the sixth century AH.

Castles are one of the most amazing innovations of Iranians in the field of architecture and one of the most numerous remnants of the past. These buildings, which have been formed in most areas with the aim of securing the inhabitants of this land, have been developed and developed with the passage of time and in accordance with the existing needs and according to the construction location, performance and objectives of its builders. the two main types of plain and mountain castles, mountain castles, commonly known as fortresses, have a more diverse space organization and form and its construction location determines the type of its map. Tehran province is one of the regions that due to its special geographical location and located in the path of highways connecting the central areas of the country with other parts of the country, as well as the existence of the ancient and historical city of Ray, which was at some point in the history of the Capital of Iran, countless castles can be searched in its plains and mountains. field studies of authors, a considerable number of these castles were identified, some of which are based on alborz heights overlooking tehran plain. Therefore, determining the spatial organization, form and function of these castles is the subject of research and its results are presented in this paper. In achieving this goal, answering questions about spatial and temporal distribution, the governing model of space organization, form and function, as well as the focus of these defense fortifications were necessary. In field studies, which were carried out by reviewing and documenting all samples, 159 fortresses and defensive buildings from pre-Islamic times and various Islamic periods were identified these, 69 castles and defensive buildings (about 40%) are located in mountainous areas and more than 50% of them are located in the east of Tehran in Firuzkooh city, most of which were founded in pre-Islamic times and have been exploited in various Islamic periods. One of the prominent examples of mountain fortresses located in the center of Firuzkooh city is a castle called Firuzkooh or Firuz Shah, which is the largest and most important mountain tin in Tehran. In this paper, we have tried to introduce this highly prominent and identified sample by relying on reliable historical documents and sources and archaeological field researches.