In criminal law, entrapment is a practice whereby a law enforcement agent induces a person to commit a criminal offense that the person would have otherwise been unlikely to commit. It is a type of conduct that is generally frowned upon, and thus in many jurisdictions is a possible defense against criminal liability.Depending on the law in the jurisdiction, the prosecution may be required to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant was not entrapped or the defendant may be required to prove that they were entrapped as an affirmative defense.The entrapment defense in the United States has evolved mainly through case law. Two competing tests exist for determining whether entrapment has taken place, known as the “subjective” and “objective” tests. The “subjective” test looks at the defendant's state of mind; entrapment can be claimed if the defendant had no “predisposition” to commit the crime. The “objective” test looks instead at the government's conduct; entrapment occurs when the actions of government officers would usually have caused a normally law-abiding person to commit a crime.

Crime detection is among the police major missions. The present paper tries to explore the process of entrapment by the police from three different perspectives: Police, accused, and evidences. If a crime is detected through entrapment by the police, the crime is of the type related to police officers, the perpetrator has criminal responsibility. If a police officer encourages somebody to commit a crime, he will be the suspect for being the accomplice of the perpetrator.Due to certain reasons, crime detection by entrapment is against public order and ethics; evidences obtained through such method are not of sufficient validity for proving lots of crimes. Nonetheless, national security and specific nature of certain new crimes necessitates the use of such method for detecting crime. This paper examines rules of the U.S., France, England, and Italy on this issue and qualifies the method with Islamic Criminal system.

Chronic calf pain may have various etiologies including stress fracture, chronic compartment syndrome, accessory soleous muscle, and muscle sprains. An uncommon cause of chronic calf pain is entrapment neuropathy. Because entrapment neuropathies are uncommon, they are often underdiagnosed. A 15-year-old adolescent developed progressive calf pain 10 months before his presentation. Physical examination and paraclinical studies revealed no abnormality and electrodiagnostic study was reported as normaL 2 months nonoperative the superficial sural aponeurosis treatment and one surgical intervention were failed. Reexamination was revealed positive Tinels sign and paresthesia in distribution of the sural nerve. Surgical exploration revealed entrapment of the medial sural cutaneous nerve localized in the passage of the nerve resulted in complete resolution of symptoms and full recovery. Several location for entrapment of the sural nerve were reported, but we couldnt found any report in english language literature about sural nerve entrapment in the superficial sural aponeurosis in no athletics.

Blow out fracture is a common disease in oculoplastics clinics. One of indication for surgical intervention is entrapment of inferior rectus muscle in the fractured site. In this article authors represent two cases with this disease who underwent surgery for the entrapment of perimuscular fascia without inferior rectus muscle involvement. The results of treatment in both cases were excellent. The study was aimed to represent the specific clinical and radiological findings.

Background: Epidural catheters are seldom difficult to remove from patients. The breakage of the catheters is uncommon, troublesome and occasionally dangerous.Case presentation: A lumbar epidural catheter inserted in a 17 year-old man for applying anesthesia for internal fixation of femur fracture and subsequent postoperative epidural analgesia. In the third postoperative day, during unsuccessful attempt for removing the catheter, it was broken and was retained in his back. A CT-scan was performed and shows a fragment of catheter in the sub-laminar ligament between L3 and L4 without any connection with epidural space. As the patient had no complaint the fractured fragment was left in site and he was just followed up in the clinic.Conclusion: The knowledge of practical method in locating the retained epidural catheter, and the indication for surgical removal are very important. CT-scan is useful in showing the mechanism and locating the epidural catheter entrapment and facilitating surgical follow-up.

Background: Entrapment of the suprascapular nerve may causes pain in the shoulder which may be attributing wrongly to the other shoulder disorders and the treatment often delayed. Many authors believed that the treatment of this disease is conservative. This study was conducted to assess the effect of surgical release of the suprascapular nerve on the improvement of the patients' functional score.Methods: Operative release for the entrapment of the suprascapular nerve was carried out in 5 patients. All patients were followed for 16 months (between 12-20 months). They finally were assessed by the functional shoulder score devised by constant and murley. The average score before the operative release was 40 ± 17. The diagnosis was confirmed with electrophysiologic studies and MRI. The average time from the onset of symptoms to operation was 7.8 ± 3.2 months.Results: All patients were followed for an average of 16 months after operative release. Final constant score was 75.8 ± 26.2. There was an excellent result in all patients, except one who obliged to change his job (case 1). All patients were pain free after operation and had full recovery of muscle bulk except for case 1.Conclusion The symptomatic and functional outcome in our study showed that operative decompression and entrapment of the suprascapular nerve improved the patients' functional score. It seems that, if conservative treatments such as physiotherapy failed, it is better to do operative release as soon as possible, because the delayed operation has negative effect on final outcome.

Background: Due to traumatic events, patients with acetabular fractures are vulnerable to rupture of the peritoneum and abdominal hernia in the fracture site. Infection and thromboembolic events are the two most common complications of this situation. Case Report: In the current report, we present a 63-year-old woman with a traffic accident that was diagnosed with multiple fractures of the posterior and anterior walls and anterior column of the right acetabulum associated with femoral head protrusion to the fracture site. Furthermore, the right posterior iliac wing fracture and mild subluxation of the right sacroiliac (SI) joint were observed in the pelvic computed tomography (CT) scan. During the Stoppa surgical approach, small intestine penetration and peritoneum were observed and immediately treated by the surgical team. Our case was later diagnosed with pulmonary thromboembolism and recovered successfully, and no infectious complications were observed. Conclusion: We suggest that bowel entrapment be considered in blunt traumatic events, and antibiotics and anti-coagulants be used in similar cases.