The present article studies a new outlook on metaphor which opposes the traditional outlook. Rejecting the idea that metaphors have an absolutely linguistic and literary nature, this outlook, introduced by G. Lakoff and M. Johnson in their work Metaphors We Live By (1980), believes that people make use of metaphors in their daily lives. This article by giving a report of the "conceptual metaphor theory", deals with the nature, function, and types of conceptual metaphor according to Lakoff and Jhonson.

IntroductionLakoff and Johnson believe that in metaphor, concept-formation in one field of experience (destination field) is done based upon the other field (source field). They divide conceptual metaphors into three categories of ontological, structural and directional; and believe the personification metaphor to be the most obvious of ontological metaphors. In this type of metaphor, the physical object is thought of as a person. This type of metaphor shows not only the viewpoint and thoughts of people, but also the way they treat the subject.Literature, whether poetry or fiction, is one of the means of educational system through which we can educate children about various subjects, for example about issues related to preserving the environment. In fact, giving correct information to children about nature and animals is one of the aims and functions of children’s literature (Shoarinejad, 2011: 90). This is one of the most important issues in Iranian children’s literature, too. Previous researches show that 52 percent of topics in the children’s poetry for age group C published in Iran from 1991 to 2001; 39.7 percent of topics in poems of 2001 to 2011; and 33 percent of topics in poetry from 2011 to 2021 are related to nature (Zarqani & Abbaspour, 2007: 172; Ostadzadeh, 2012: 2; Alimi, 2015: 126). Therefore, it is necessary to analyze these poems in order to see what attitude is advocated in them toward nature, what understanding of nature is presented, and what behaviors are ensued from this understanding. Methodology, Review of Literature and PurposeThe aim of this research is to analyze the personification of nature based on the theory of Lakoff and Johnson in 40 poetry collections for children published by the Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Adolescents after the Islamic Revolution in 1979. The method of the research is descriptive-analytical and library research method is used for gathering information.Several researches have been conducted before in this field. Niktalab (2013) in “The Conceptual Metaphor of Sun in the Poetry of Children and Adolescents” has studied the different metaphorical forms created by the image of the sun in children’s poetry. Sojoodi and Qanbari (2012) in “A Semantic Study of Time Metaphor in Children’s Fiction in Persian (Age Groups A, B and C)” have come to the conclusion that the Persian-speaking child in these age groups not only understands the concept of time by moving in time, but also the function of the pattern of “time is a thing” and “that thing is moving” in time metaphor is related to the moon and the sun and other objects around the child in an ontological projection which directly influence the understanding of the concept of time. And Sadeqi (2013) in “Evaluating the Growth of Metaphorical Language in Persian-Speaking Children: A Comparative study” has studied the process of development of understanding of metaphors in Persian-speaking children in three age groups 6, 7 and 8 years of age and has come to the conclusion that the ability to understand metaphors starts in children from young ages and increases with age. DiscussionIn children’s poetry, attention is paid to different aspects of nature; however, not all the elements of nature are personified in these poems as a result of the type of modern life, the lived experiences of children and also the environment of the poet. In children’s poetry, there is no boundary between human and animal and nature considering the right to live; and all the elements have the right to live just like humans and are depicted as having purposeful actions. Not only the animals, but also all the other elements of nature are regarded as having emotion. Happy, sad, timid and regretful are some of the most important human emotions that are ascribed to natural elements. Some instances of personification in these poems are created by associating human body parts and appearance characteristics such as having hand, heart and head or being ugly or beautiful, heavy or thin, to natural elements. In children’s poetry, people are asked to observe ethical principles in dealing with nature and learn moral behavior from natural element; furthermore, the poets introduce natural elements as having the ability to distinguish between good and bad. This is another aspect of personification in these poems.In some of the poems in this study, natural elements have acquired a feminine identity. in fact, natural elements are associated with women more than men. The similarities are in different fields: physiological characteristics (giving birth); women’s roles and responsibilities at home (motherhood and raising children); familial relationships (being aunt and bride). It can be argued that women and nature are related to each other in three ways: the relationship between women and nature; the relationship between domination over women and domination over nature; and women’s roles in solving ecological problems.Another procedure for personifying nature is giving child characteristics to natural elements. Associating human clothing to natural elements is another way for personifying nature in children’s poetry. By these metaphor, instead of forcing people to accept a specific approach toward nature, poets have tried to give nature a voice to talk about its own situation with children. ConclusionFor personification of natural elements, poets have paid more attention to human actions and emotions because of didactic purposes. Ascribing these human characteristics to nature has resulted in the formation of a metaphor, “nature as human”. Considering the different human characteristics, this metaphor has seven parts: “nature is an active human”; “nature is a human with emotions”; “nature has human body parts”; “nature is a human with an ethical attitude”; “nature is a woman”; “nature is a child”; and “nature is human for having clothes”. According to these metaphors, nature is seen as a creature with a life like human’s. Just like humans, natural elements have purposeful actions; they understand the humans’ behavior toward them by the help of their emotions; and even observe ethical imperatives in performing their actions. These metaphors and their ensuing attitude result in friendship with nature, determining the right way to deal with nature, giving natural elements the right to live, being kind, loving, respectful and caring and feeling responsible toward nature. Consequently, one can say that in children’s poetry, a positive attitude is advocated for preserving nature. 

One of the branches of sociolinguistics is gender linguistics, which examines the effect of the author’s gender on the content of the work. In this article, inductive and analytical methods of feminine and masculine language in the collection of Goli Taraghi’s works are compared based on the theories of social linguists and from the perspective of grammar, in order to evaluate the effect of the author’s gender on the story language and his/her level of success in creating a language appropriate to the gender of homosexual and heterosexual characters. For this purpose, female and male languages in the field of grammar were examined based on the following variables; Vocabulary such as: taboo words and color words, and sentences such as: modifiers and verifiers. The findings show that characters’ language is influenced by the author’s gender, and the clichés of feminine language are repeated more frequently in this work. Based on the above variables it was also determined that the author was able to use a language appropriate to the gender of the characters in many ways. In cases where there is no proportion between language and gender, especially in female characters, it is largely because of the author’s spirit and intent, to show the desire of women against the domination of a patriarchal ruling society.

Cognitive metaphor is considered one of the modern topics in linguistics, and its theorists, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, took it from its linguistic framework to the conceptual cognitive field, so that it is considered present in aspects of “mental thinking” in all areas of ordinary life. Lakoff and Johnson believe that metaphor is not for decoration or embellishment Or a linguistic phenomenon related to the language of poetry, but rather an intellectual phenomenon that is related to our conceptual system, inherent in the ordinary life that we live, because we hardly realize it most of the time, and that an important part of our emotions, behavior, and experiences is metaphorical in nature. One of the most important buildings of this theory is the concept of “conceptual schemes,” which is a mental phenomenon that enables many intellectual experiences and basic concepts to be understood, such as trust in God, feelings of sin, shame, submission, and reassurance, and then tangible experiences through metaphor. The Sahifa al-Sajjadiyah played an important role in employing metaphor, due to its openness to an infinite process, which produces a diverse interpretive chain. Hence, the interpretation of the metaphor varies according to the cognitive contents from which the reader starts, so supplications play a central role through latent interaction. The article was subjected to some reading. Conceptual diagrams of ontological metaphors and their analysis in Sahifa al-Sajjadiyya in light of Lakoff and Johnson’s theory to clarify the implicit and aesthetic connotations, which explain to the recipient how he obtains religious experiences, relying this on the descriptive analytical approach, from which it is deduced that the Qur’anic concepts in the culture of imams are metaphorical, and material experiences are like containment. Balance and others constitute the core of the concepts adopted by the Imam, revealing the extent to which his moral philosophy is embodied. This is because transferring abstractions from the realm of non-existence to the realm of existence and being is easier to understand, and closer to realization, as it gives society an awareness of what Imam Al-Sajadi is heading in doctrine and culture, in addition to Expanding understanding.

AbstractOne of the achievements of cognitive linguistics is the discovery of the fact that languages ​​use conceptual metaphors to make abstract concepts tangible. According to Lakoff and Johnson (2003), conceptual metaphor uses the domain of origin, which is a tangible domain, to explain the domain of destination, which is an abstract and intangible concept; In fact, the basis of conceptual metaphor is the existence of a category of origin and a category of destination and the creation of a correspondence between them. In this view, conceptual metaphors are divided into three categories: ontological, directional and structural, and ontological metaphors in turn fall into three sub-categories: container, object / matter, personality (discernment). Arash's long epic poem is one of the valuable works of Mehrdad Avesta.  According to his epic content, he has expressed many abstract concepts with the help of conceptual metaphors. The purpose of this study is to investigate the ontological metaphors in this epic work in a descriptive-analytical manner. After answering the question of how ontological metaphors were used in Arash's epic and what concepts were tangible through this metaphor, the authors came to the conclusion that the poet sought to express sigh and regret. From the turbulent times that have arisen from the war between Iran and Turan, the conceptualized areas such as times, regrets, fears, calamities,  and etc. were expressed with the areas of origin in terms of the vessel, objects and people. Since the essence of the epic is associated with dynamism and mobility, most conceptualization has taken place with the domain of the origin of the character bringing life to abstract concepts.

Undoubtedly, cognitive sciences have brought about a fundamental transformation in various branches of philosophy and linguistics, expanding rapidly in contemporary discourse. Metaphor is one of the most significant phenomena that has acquired a new meaning within the framework of cognitive sciences. Historically, metaphor and metonymy were merely tools for the subtlety of language in traditional linguistics. However, under the new lens of these sciences, metaphor is regarded as a fundamental element of thought and subjective perception. According to the pioneering theorists of this framework, metaphors permeate cognitive thought processes and are prevalent in everyday life, extending beyond mere literary language and rhetorical embellishments. Children are capable of understanding the relationships between different domains, which is a sign of their metaphorical thinking and the development of their cognitive abilities. In children's literature, writers tend to use cognitive metaphors to convey intangible concepts related to fundamental areas such as time, emotions, relationships, and events, contributing to cognitive growth in children and responding to their curiosity. This research, based on a descriptive-analytical approach, examines poetic models for children and aims to illustrate the effectiveness of ontological metaphor and its types (personification, substance, and container) in light of the "Lakoff" and "Johnson" theory to reveal its role in embodying mental and abstract images and clarifying their conceptual nature. From the analysis of metaphors in fifteen poetry collections for children, it can be concluded that there is a direct relationship between the quantity of metaphors used and the embodiment of abstract concepts within them, as metaphor facilitates the description of inner experiences and abstract concepts that ordinary language fails to convey. The study also shows that most metaphors in children's literature are sensory and concrete in nature; however, abstract metaphors pose a challenge for children, who require extensive experience to generalize their knowledge to abstract data such as emotions and thoughts. The study indicates that personification occupies a significant space in these poetry collections. Through the examination of various poets' works, it was observed that writers have explained abstract and fundamental concepts such as "time, love, knowledge, freedom," etc., sometimes in the form of substances and objects, and at other times as containers and places, and sometimes with the aid of personification and humanization to make them understandable for children.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: It can be said that in the theory of conceptual metaphor, the metaphors depend on the conceptual and semantic relationship ofintermediate words, which act as a tool for understanding and conceivinga kind of human understanding ofphenomena and abstractand tangible world affairs, as well. The literature on conceptual metaphor theory has various origins and destinations through which it explains the concepts of the mind to the reader in a tangible way. The main purpose of this research is to study poems of Sa’adi"s Sonnets whose field of origin or destination with the concept of "love”has been paid attention by poet. METHODOLOGY: The research method of this research is descriptive-analytical basedon library studies and the documentation methodbased on the selection of lyric poems in which love and its semantic clusters have been paid more attention. FINDINGS: According to studies, love has a high value and place Sa’adi"s words. Sa’adi" s view on the issue of love is a positive and very imaginative view. CONCLUSION: The research results indicate that the conceptual metaphor of love in Sa’adi"s world view and intellectual view, which is itself derive from a conceptual system has overshadowed the structure of the poet"s mind and thought. In Sa’adi"s lyric poems, love for him isenlightening, life-giving, changeable, healing, purifying, and a restless phenomenon, not onlyrelieves the heart but alsolanguishes it, and love is a murderous robber.

One of the well-known conceptual metaphors is the metaphor of "time as space". Time as an abstract concept is conceptualized by a concrete concept like space. This conceptualization of time is also reflected in co-speech gestures. In this research, we try to find out what dimension and direction the mental timeline takes in co-speech gestures and under which metaphorical sources of space it takes place. For this purpose, six possible metaphorical sources adopted from space on three axes of sagittal, lateral, and vertical in six spatial directions were examined on the words tomorrow and yesterday. Participants were 137 students ranging in age from 18 to 30. The frequency of occurrence and the average percentage in co-speech gestures showed that the horizontal-sagittal axis back to front adopted from metaphorical-spatial source of linguistic metaphors with 55. 75%; and right to left horizontal-lateral axis adopted from metaphorical-spatial source of Persian writing direction with 30. 1% were the two influential factors in activating these dimensions and directions. The results of this study showed that language can play an important role in the representation of the mental timeline in co-speech gestures through the embodied sensory-motor experiences that we have from language as a conventional-cultural artifact in writing or linguistic metaphors.

The theory of conceptual metaphors is one of the theories that has presented a different perspective on the classical traditional form of metaphor, transforming it into a structure that combines linguistic aesthetics, meaning, and concept. This theory begins by perceiving the experiences an individual undergoes and their lived reality, shaping this mental structure through acquired symbols within its framework of meanings. This characteristic is one of the features inherent in dreams and true visions, which contain substantive metaphorical implications. Necessary concepts for meaning and required expression are conveyed through the use of conceptual quotations and related metaphors, which the mind transfers from the metaphysical world encountered by the dreamer to the lived world. Through this process, the vision is expressed via a network of meanings formed within visual symbols. In this study, and relying on a descriptive-analytical method, and using the theory proposed by Lakoff and Johnson regarding substantive and conceptual metaphors, the research aims to clarify the difference between true visions and dreams mentioned in the Qur’an, where metaphorical and substantive concepts are reflected, and what distinguishes them. It has been shown that behind every true vision lies a message from a metaphysical and truthful realm, differing from dreams that stem from the material and lived world.

According to the theory proposed by Lakoff and Johnson, image metaphors emerged as a challenge to traditional rhetoric, which considered metaphor reliant on language rather than on thought and cognitive processes. Image metaphor permeates all facets of daily existence and operates as an invisible mental mechanism in modern poetry, shaping the poet's imagery systems and mirroring their life experiences. Metaphor serves as a crucial method of indirect, creative expression in the poetry of Ali Ja'far Al-Alaq and Manouchehr Atashi, deeply engaging and impacting the audience through various schemas. Adopting a descriptive-analytical approach and drawing on the American school of comparative literature, this research examines the most notable metaphorical image schemas in the works of these two poets. The findings reveal that both poets frequently employ volumetric schemas to illustrate their conceptual imagery, with a particular emphasis on the human body as a vessel for abstract ideas. In Al-Alaq’s poetry, the movement schema is inspired by external environmental motifs, while in Atashi’s works, it often signifies the passage of time. The power schema in Al-Alaq’s poetry highlights the dominance of negative and limiting forces over the poet’s perspectives, whereas in Atashi’s poetry, it depicts the interplay of positive and negative forces and their effects on his personal and social viewpoints.  Introduction: Today, metaphor extends beyond being merely a poetic device that uses one or more words to convey a superficial understanding of a familiar image. In other words, metaphor is no longer restricted to language, its essence lies in mapping one cognitive domain onto another, incorporating abstract concepts such as time, emotions, movements, and similar ideas. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson explore metaphor from a novel cognitive perspective, distinct from traditional interpretations. They argue that metaphor is a fundamental aspect of human experiences, emotions, and daily life, asserting that a significant portion of our conceptual and cognitive systems relies on metaphorical structures. The mental aspect of metaphor, originating in the mind, reflects an individual’s perspective and stance on objects and issues in their life. This metaphor shapes our cognitive framework, with language serving as a medium for employing metaphor. Consequently, standard techniques and approaches for developing new metaphors involve connecting one cognitive image to another, presented as conceptual metaphor schemas. Various schemas for conceptual metaphors have been identified, including volumetric, path, force, balance, and others. Among these, the first three are most frequently observed in literary texts. The volumetric schema derives from humans’ tangible experiences with space and their application to mental constructs. The path schema suggests that the surrounding world is filled with numerous paths, such as those between home and work or cities, which can be understood through both reality and imagination. Recognizing these paths can be metaphorically conceptualized by progressing through three stages: the origin or starting point, the destination or endpoint, and the points connecting the start and end. The force schema emerges from the culmination of human experiences in creative spaces, demonstrating the interplay between humans and other elements exerting forces, which affects the extent of interaction and movement. This research aims to answer the following two questions: What are the most prominent conceptual metaphor schemas commonly found in the poetry of Ali Ja'far Al-Alaq and Manouchehr Atashi, based on Lakoff and Johnson's theory of conceptual metaphor? How do the shared and differing functions of these schemas contribute to constructing meanings and generating poetic imagery in the works of the two poets? Method: The importance and necessity of this research arise from the fact that image schemas serve as dynamic elements in the interpretation of poetic works, illuminating the nature of word usage and generating new meanings. Despite their significance, comparative studies of image schemas have received limited attention in contemporary research. This is particularly true for comparative examinations of such schemas in the poetry of two poets, underscoring the need for this study. The research employs a descriptive-analytical approach, with a comparative framework grounded in the American school of comparative literature. The objective is to compare two distinct literary traditions by analyzing the similarities and differences in themes related to conceptual metaphor approaches, utilizing the theories of Lakoff and Johnson as the analytical lens for the presented data. The selection of these two poets, Ali Ja'far Al-Alaq and Manouchehr Atashi, among others, is based on the prominent presence of various image schemas within cognitive contexts and environments that are closely interconnected. Investigating these schemas can effectively illuminate their shared perspectives on thought and their perceptions of the world around them. Results and Discussion: Based on Lakoff and Johnson’s theory of conceptual metaphor and its comparison in the poetry of Ali Ja'far Al-Alaq and Manouchehr Atashi, this research has reached several conclusions summarized as follows: The conceptual metaphor schemas in their poetry emphasize key approaches in the field, particularly volumetric, path, and force schemas. Through the volumetric schema, both poets utilize imaginative interpretations of their intended concepts within physical spatial dimensions. By viewing the human body as a vessel for abstract ideas, they generate new meanings in the realm of metaphor. In Al-Alaq’s poetry, this schema is closely associated with the path schema, while in Atashi’s works, it encompasses broader dimensions, linking to both personal and social aspects of his life. Both poets draw extensively from the dynamic elements of their environment to present volumetric schemas. However, Al-Alaq emphasizes the overlapping of multiple volumetric schemas to achieve visual unity, while Atashi focuses on expanding and deepening a single metaphorical image. The path schema in Al-Alaq’s poetry is influenced by external environmental themes, showcasing tangible visual movement as he considers abstract phenomena from a mental perspective. In contrast, Atashi’s path schema integrates temporal dynamics and unexpected shifts, illustrated through anthropomorphic representations and human-like behaviors in diverse situations. Al-Alaq’s path schema illustrates movement from a defined starting point to a specific endpoint, whereas Atashi's approach frequently centers on an ambiguous destination, highlighting the initial point. In situations characterized by negative restraining forces, Al-Alaq employs the force schema. He begins with a fundamental abstract concept of power and, through various cognitive dimensions, expands its meaning and scope. Conversely, Atashi utilizes the force schema in both personal and social contexts, exploring both negative and positive cognitive aspects. At times, the obstacles represented in the schema can transform into motivations for new beginnings. Both poets engage with the concept of force during times of crisis, yet their responses differ significantly. Al-Alaq tends to accept the situation as it is, without attempting to change it, whereas Atashi either resists the force or seeks an alternative path to achieve his goals. Conclusion: The functional range of these schemas extends beyond literature, however, their role in literary works has a significant impact that cannot be ignored in the realms of meaning creation and creativity. This is particularly evident in contemporary Arabic and Persian poetry, where conceptual metaphors play a crucial role in engaging the reader's mind and evoking emotions. In the poetry of Ali Ja'far Al-Alaq and Manouchehr Atashi, conceptual metaphor has become a fundamental element in shaping their language and poetic vision. Their poems feature numerous representations of abstract concepts, whose variety and dynamism merit close attention and analysis. Analyzing and tracing these metaphors often uncovers the specific objectives, images, or ideas that both poets aim to comunicate through this cognitive approach.