In her 2014 paper "Internalism About Reasons: Sad But True? ", Kate Manne defends a version of Internalism about normative reasons for actions. She starts by considering the interpersonal context of reasons to emphasize how reasons are limited by psychological states of the agent. Then, she defends a necessary condition for reasons; i. e., Ideal Reasoning Thesis, which every theory of reason should satisfy. However, she claims, externalism fails to do so. On the contrary, we suggest that it is not clear whether the process of Ideal Reasoning happens in an ideal or non-ideal time. Furthermore, it seems preferable to take time to be ideal too. Clearing the ambiguity about time makes externalism able to satisfy Ideal Reasoning Thesis and, thus, the argument for internalism fails.

During the recent decades with increasing the use of assisted reproductive techniques including IVF, IUI and ovulation induction, the rate of multiple pregnancies has been increased worldwide. More than 30% of ART pregnancies are twins or higher-order multiple gestations (triplets or greater) a frequency 15- to 20-fold greater than with spontaneous conceptions. Because of the high cost of treatment and the relatively low success rate of such treatments (which is improving every day), a decision is sometimes made to implant several fertilized eggs.Many studies indicate that multiple pregnancies have negative impact on families’ emotional wellbeing and are associated with social and financial burden on couples.From 1980s, multifetal pregnancy reduction has been introduced as an efficacious method to reduce fetal number and improve the survival of remaining fetuses.Since most of the fetal loss subsequent to embryo reduction occurs several weeks after the procedure, an inflammatory response to dead fetoplacental tissue with releasing of cytokines and stimulation of prostaglandins might leads to fetal loss, uterine contractions and preterm labour.In a large multicentre study, improved outcomes were observed by multifetal pregnancy reduction done by expert hands in terms of fetal loss and early prematurity.The most important complication of high order multifetal pregnancies (more than two) is preterm delivery ranging from 32% to 86% in different studies. In a recent study in Royan Institute report that fetal reduction of triplets to twins leads to 4% increase in miscarriage rate and couldn’t be demonstrated any correlation with the initial number of fetuses and other outcomes such as preterm birth, gestational age at delivery and birth weight of neonates. In this study the extreme prematurity was more common in non reduced group compared to reduced group. As a consequence, the mean gestational age at delivery for reduced group was significantly higher than expectantly managed group and the average gestational length was 4 weeks longer in the reduced group. Furthermore, in the current study, the mean birth weights of neonates were higher in the reduced group than control group and the percentage of low birth weight infants (<2500 g) was significantly higher in the expectantly managed group. As prematurity is the most important cause of neonatal and perinatal deaths and subsequent handicap infants, prolongation of gestational age at delivery due to fetal reduction could less the rate of deaths and handicap among survivors. But as ultrasound equipment improved and doctors gained technical expertise, the procedure triggered fewer miscarriages.Genetic diagnosis before reduction is becoming more common, safe in experienced hands.The ultimate goal in prevention is to significantly reduce the likelihood that any multifetal pregnancy will occur, including twins.Reduction is hardly the only area in which reproductive innovation has outpaced cultural consensus.The justification for eliminating some fetuses in a multiple pregnancy was always to increase a woman’s chance of bringing home a healthy baby, because medical risks rise with every fetus she carries. Not only does the danger to the mother increase with more fetuses, but also the risk of miscarriage, ending the lives of all of the fetuses increases. Ultimate decision of patients depends on: extent of their religious and antiabortion sentiments, whether they medical-scientific careers, how proactive the advice from physicians has been.

Most of contracts in Fiqh are set based on a certain reason. Furthermore, all contracts need some certain general reasons according to which conditions and regulations of contracts are derived. In four parts, the essay discusses the verse mentioning "merchandising by mutual consent".First, terminology and etymology of the verse are discussed. Then, the concepts are mentioned and whether the verse proves the liability in case a contract is invalid is examined. Third, effective scope of the verse is systematically reviewed and independency of this verse in deducing contract regulations or inconsistency of utilizing this verse and similar verses for deduction is discussed. Finally, the authorexemplifies the case with some current contracts such as setting a price for cancellation of a contract, commission fee of non-benefit loans, violation of work hour by employees, etc.

Writing reasons in Holy Prophet's practice started during the third century. This branch of Holy Prophet's historiography aims at investigating and introducing the books that make effort to prove his prophetic mission particularly emphasizing the signs and miracles of his prophecy. Tathbit dala'il Al-Nobovvah is of the most noteworthy books in historiography of the reasons for prophecy. The author is Qazi Abd Al-Jabbar Hamedani, a great scholar of the Mo'tazelite and the well-known chief judge in Rey. He adopted a different approach both in writing style and in reasons for writing from other authors of the books on reasons of prophecy. Of the remarkable features of this book has been the author's attention to the facts in proving the prophecy of Mohammad (SA), the point which is not paid enough attention to in other such books, particularly Hadith books. In the present article, it has been tried to delve into various aspects of Tathbit dala'il Al-Nobovvah, emphasizing the features of writing reason. How Abad Al-Jabbar Hamedani has thought about miracles and the signs of prophet hood of Mohammad (SA) as well as fitting this image in prophet's reasonography have been investigated in this article. The method of this research is library-based, relying on primary resources in addition to making use of recent research and applying descriptive-analytical approach for analyzing the data.

Normative ethics determine the options we ought to choose by ethically evaluating actions. In reason-based theory, the facts of what one ought to do are grounded and explained by virtue of the facts about reasons. According to this view, we demonstrate that the moral deontic status of options, which is derived from the normative deontic status of options, is determined by weighing the amount of normative weight of the basic practical normative reasons and based on the modified basic model. The modified basic model uses the weight of an unqualified all-things-considered reason for each option in a given situation as the input variables. To support our assumptions, we address the objections raised by opponents. These objections, respectively, include pro-tanto holism, source monism, normative pluralism, non-compositional holism, and the problem of normative options (merely permitted options). After evaluating these objections, we conclude that our assumptions will be defensible.

Discussion about what human soul is and what relation ship it has with the body has been Counted among philosophical discussions widespread in every period. In the era of plato and Aristotle, some reasons were established for the immateriality of soul. Until Bu-Ali produced numerous reasons for affirmation proof of the immateriality of soul. So it was criticized. Fakhre Razi Collected his reasons which seemed to be scattered as well as their objections. After him Molla Sadra presented Bu-Ali and Fakhr Razi's reasons in other words and with further explanations. Molla Hadi Sabze vari also gave those reasons, until Ayatollah Hassan Zadeh Amoli. Collected all the reasons for the immateriality of soul and represented them in an independent book. However, all of those reasons encountered difficulties and objections. The late shalid matlahhari looked at the immateriality of soul from another perspective. Today, other reasons should be investigated for the study of the immateriality of soul.

Compromise is of matters that it has plentiful applications in the people transactions and it is circulated more every day. But, legislator has not cleared and enacted article on it to now, for this reason, there were different views in various times, so that, it can't to see completely unique policy in lawyer views and judicial precedent.Jurisprudent ideas and jurisprudent sources has effective role played in the views dispersion, and sometimes, political and economical expediencies have not had ineffective to make that dispersed situation.In this investigation, tried to clear applicable rules on the compromise and its legal nature and also to present views about legal institutive nature. In this case, tried to bring the preliminary condition and to analyze its concept and nature and also views of the believed on cancellation and correctness of the preliminary condition and so to present a reason as credibility reason and correctness and necessity of the compromise jurisprudently and lawfully.At last, it is concluded that compromise is a mutual legal act in nature and it has contract matrix, it is unspecified, commutative and obligatory and also its subject is a legal positive act i.e. counter promise if any parties to compose a contract with determined terms and characteristics in future that its doing has been promised.

Inheritance is sometimes by kinship and sometimes through relation by marriage (sabab). However, the Imamiyyah jurists believe that if a dead person has an heir who enjoys two reasons for inheritance, this person can take both of the shares, no matter whether these two or more reasons are relation by marriage or by kinship, or both or all the reasons are either kinship or marriage, provided that none of the reasons is preventing the other. Otherwise, the heir would only inherit based on the reason which prevents other possible reasons. In this paper, an analytical-descriptive method is used to prove that according to the existing evidence, inheritance of the heir for two reasons is specific to those cases in which one reason is relation by marriage and the other is by kinship. However, in cases where both reasons are by kinship, the heir would inherit both shares only in case the relations by kinship are considered as conventionally separate and distinctive.

Domestic Violence is often defined as a pattern of behavior to gain or maintain power and control over an intimate partner. Domestic violence can be physical, sexual, emotional, economic, psychological, but one of the most prevalent forms of domestic violence against women is sexual abuse in marriage; However, its reporting rate is very low compared to other forms of domestic violence. This research seeks to answer the following question: "Why do not victims of marital rape report their victimization to criminal justice system or why do they report it only years after suffering abuse?". To answer this question, in addition to library resources, in-depth and semi-structured interviews with 45 victims of marital rape, 15 attorneys at law, 20 judges and 13 family Health specialists were used for data collection. The findings revealed that a victim often does not report marital rape under the influence of some factors such as shame, fear of enacted stigma, dread of her husband's revenge, insensitivity of criminal justice to domestic violence, and most importantly not to perceive herself as a victim of sexual violence. The silence of victims causes their husbands to repeat the violence. Therefore, it seems that the reduction of marital rape, in addition to creating awareness among women about their right to freedom from violence and raising awareness about correct way to sex, requires protective legislation for victims and the development of special training programs for police and judges.