The aim of this study was to investigate the role of mind fullness and meta- parenting in effective parenting and parenting stress. The sample group included 196 parents of elementary school students in the academic year 2014-2015 in Pakdasht city who were selected by purposive sampling. Participants completed parenting Style Questionnaire (Baumrind, 1973), Mindful Attention Awareness (Ryan and Brown, 2003), Meta- parenting Questionnaire (Hawk & Holden, 2006) and parenting Stress Index (Abidin, 1990). The data were analyzed by Pearson multiple regression analysis. The results showed that mindfulness and component of meta-parenting (anticipation) can be predict authoritarian style and authoritative style. The results showed that mindfulness and componentof meta- parenting (anticipation and reflection) had predictive power for parental stress in child and parent context (P<0.01). But mindfulness and components of meta-parenting did not predict permissive style.

Introduction: Child bullying has been one of the forms of violence considered by national and international institutions. The problems behaviors of the child are effective in reducing the Mother's sense of competence. The sense of competence has a great impact on the quality of the parent-child relationship. This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of the two parenting training programs Supportive parenting and Leading by Modeling on the parenting Sense of Competence of mothers with a bully son. Methods: This study employed a quasi-experimental method using a pretest-posttest design with a control group and a three-month follow-up. The research population included all primary schools for boys (8-10 years old) in District 4 of Tehran in 2020. The participants were selected using voluntary convenience sampling and were randomly assigned to three groups. Finally, 60 mothers whose sons scored higher on the Illinois Bullying Scale were selected as the participants and divided into three groups of 20 (two intervention groups and one control group). The instruments used to collect the data were the Illinois Bullying Scale (Espelage & Holt, 2001), the parenting Sense of competence scale (Gibaud-Wallston et al. 1978) The participants in both intervention groups attended Supportive parenting and Leading by Modeling training programs for Thirteen two-hour sessions once a week. The collected data were analyzed using repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) with SPSS software (V. 22). Results: The findings showed a significant difference between the intervention and control groups in parenting sense of competence (P=0. 0001) in the post-test and follow-up phases. While there was a significant difference between the effectiveness of the two programs on the parenting sense of competence and the parenting Leading by Modeling program (47. 35 ± 8. 10, P <0. 001) was more effective than the supportive parenting program (39. 60 ± 9. 15, P <0. 001). Conclusions: The results showed that both support and leading by modeling programs are effective in improving the sense of competence of mothers. It seems that training mothers with a bullied son can help reduce mothers› psychological stress and improve their relationships with their children.

The aim of the current study was to explain the way culture influences the development of children based on the theory of developmental niche. For this, a library based method was conducted. The current research concluded that culture organizes the environmental factors influencing child development. Hence, organized factors impact development more likely than unorganized ones. The theory gives a more important role to parental ethnotheory subsystem which acts as a nexus through which parents’ beliefs are related to the larger culture and organises the other two subsystems. Also, parental ethnotheories influences parenting goals and in consequence parenting practices. Additionally, child has an active role in his/her development. Child and his/her niche are developed together. This implies that developmental niche is dynamic and flexible adapting itself to individual differences of children.