JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Year:2015 | Volume:16 | Issue:3 (63)|Papers Count:8

Schleiermacher is the founder of a trend whose members regard mystical experience as a kind of feelings and affections. Of course, he believes that this kind of experience is not devoid of any epistemic aspect and, differentiating between two kinds of feelings and two kinds of awareness, holds that mystical experience is a kind of feelings which has a direct awareness in which the distance between perceiver and perceived is removed. He uses the concept of "absolute dependency" to explain this particular feeling and awareness which form the nature of mystical experience and knowledge. Absolute dependency is a one-directional relationship in which man has no freedom and choice by himself. This feeling includes and explains the concept of God, world and man. Man and world are the absolute dependent and God as the other side of this dependency (Absolute Independent). Several criticisms have directed against this view, including doubt about (gradation in) the possibility of realization of non-conceptual awareness, doubt about (gradation in) the possibility of realization of unintentional awareness, ambiguity in the existence and nature of affections containing knowledge, etc. which are discussed at the end of present paper.

One of the most fundamental foundations of transcendent philosophy is gradation in existence which has been used as a basis for explanation and affirmation of several philosophical problems, and to which Mulla Sadra Shirazi owes many of his innovations in different philosophical fields. The problem of union of the knower and the known is one of his most important innovations in epistemology in which gradation has a basic role. Philosophers before Mulla Sadra regarded the amount of abstraction of known from material and its consequents as the criterion for the kinds of perception and the difference between perceptions as the result of difference in the amount of abstraction of essence from its contradictory affairs because they neglected the problem of gradation in existence. Rejecting the theory of Taqhshir (decortication or abstraction through which the mind eliminates redundancies to obtain the essence of perception or intellectual stage), however, Mulla Sadra believes that difference in perceptions is the result of difference in modes of abstract being. In transcendent philosophy, the criterion for being known is only justifiable on the basis of gradational system of existence. Accepting collective existence in gradational system of existence, he believes in modes of being in a longitudinal order for an essence, which necessitates another predication called "real and delicate predication". Accordingly, the criterion for being known is based on solidification of existence. The more intensive is existence in terms of actualization and realization the more is its being known, and the less intensive is existence in terms of actualization and realization the less is its being known; and the soul unites with any known in its very stage to perceive it.

Scholars have refocused on Mu'tazilite School which had been neglected for many centuries and many researches have been conducted to introduce its thoughts due to the discovery and publication of Mu' tazilite manuscripts in the early 20th century, particularly two books entitled "al-Intisar" and "al-Moqhny".The present paper reviews the course of researches on Mu'tazilite School in 20th century, divided into three periods: 1) the first half of the 20th century during which the book " al-Intisar " and other researches were published following it; 2) the early of 1960s to the late of 1980s, the beginning and turning point of which is the discovery of the book "al-Moqhny" by Qadi' Abdul Jabbar in Yemen, which was followed by the publication of other manuscripts written by him and other Mu'tazilite precedents and the conduction of several researches related to ' Abdul Jabbar's views; 3) two last decades of the 20th century during which thematic scope of researches increased.

Explanation of the nature and model of relationships between individual and society is a fundamental issue in social sciences, with a long history. In the light of the present research, the researcher wishes to explain how actor should adopt "a faithful approach to social life, in the light of the process of discovering real meaning of life" and obtain and provide a proper model for the relationships between individual and society from the view of Islamic worldview. To this end, this research is divided into two parts. First, it develops a conceptual framework for the issue in order to achieve a clear operational concept of the research topic. Then it explains the "process" of meaning-seeking of life and its role in making a faithful social life. Finally, it theoretically and practically provides necessary strategies to relieve man from such continuous questions as "how to live in this worldly life while it is mortal" and "how to adopt a faithful approach to social life", considering the fact that the existence of the process of meaning-seeking in man is approved, he is in the domain of "a meaningful life" and conforms to teachings and their consequences. This fact proves the necessity of a meaningful life based on revealed knowledge.

The symbolic novel of Hayy ibn Yaqdhan ("Hayy", meaning alive, as a symbol for intellect and "Yaqdhan", meaning awake, for God) has been narrated in such a way that it allows for various and even different interpretations. Some interpretations can be summarized as follows: a) the affirmation of the eternity of man's intellective soul; b) dual theorization about the beginning of man's creation; c) the study of the relationship between individual and society and theorizing that individual is the origin of society; and d) the description of man’s solitude and exile. The last two interpretations are based on a comparison between Ibn Tufail’s (Avempace) “Hayy ibn Yaqdhan” and Ibn Bajjah’s "Tadbir al-Motavahid". In the last interpretation, man is a lost being in this world who tries to find himself. If man can find himself, he will be able to reach the final and complete stages of humanity. The important point in Hayy ibn Yaqdhan narrative is that in his search for himself, man attains things that all have social aspects: imitating sounds and coining words, inventing clothes, providing accommodation, preparing defensive tools and instruments like club and spear, utilizing domestic animals, discovering fire and using it for cooking and other purposes, realizing the importance of limbs and organs, and dissecting them, and finally understanding the key role of heart in body which can be regarded as a metaphor for the presence of leader and the necessity of a ruler in society. Using a philosophical analysis method, focusing on the interpretation of the novel of Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, and comparing it with the novel of Salaman and Absal, the present paper seeks to describe man's exile and discuss its social aspects.

In contradiction to the epistemological status of archetypes, Aristotle proposed the theory of active intellect. Peripatetics following him have had several conceptions of active intellect. Avicenna defined active intellect as an immaterial being and independent from soul, which is the last in the hierarchy of intellects and emanates cognitive and concrete forms into material world and souls. Active intellect emanates comprehended forms into capable souls which are ready to accept the emanation of active intellect through passing the stages of sensory, imaginary and intellectual abstraction. However, some of the Avicenna's intellectual foundations -such as longitudinal relationship between the stages of perception, considering science as an accident, denying the union between the intellect and the intelligible and negating substantial motion- are in contradiction to this epistemic approach and go against abstraction, so knowledge is nothing but emanation of active intellect. This necessitates accepting the independent existence of intelligibles before active intellect, or in other words, accepting archetypes in epistemic dimension, which is denied by Avicenna. Therefore, Aristotle's proposed active intellect, which was formed in contradiction to archetypes, returns into the theory of archetypes in the developmental course of philosophy.

One of the issues mentioned in Quranic verses and hadiths regard it as "divine knowledge" is "throne and empyrean". According to other hadiths, divine knowledge is defined as "knowledge without the object of knowledge". This knowledge is essential knowledge which negates the correlation of the attribute of knowledge. Its important implied result is that divine knowledge is not limited and bounded to the object of knowledge, which leads to absolute and complete exploratory aspect of this knowledge. In the light of this view, one of the important issues, that is, "throne and empyrean" can be explained. It is clear the Divine Empyrean which encompasses the Earth and heavens is not material and the Quranic verses do not mean a chair by "throne". According to hadiths, throne and empyrean mean knowledge and their expanse and extent mean their domination on the Earth and heavens in terms of knowledge. Their similarity is that both are the greatest invisible, i.e., both of them are real knowledge through which invisible is known and visible. However, their difference is that empyrean is the knowledge of visible world before its creation, but throne is the knowledge of visible world and other things, i.e., things that empyrean does not explore and include them.

Offering a brief introduction to Upanishads and stating several mystical-philosophical issues, the present article seeks to investigate the semantic realm of Guru, types of Guru, the qualities of Guru and his disciples, the rituals and teachings of Guru, and their role in the way stations of mystic journey in the mystical thought of the Upanishads. No doubt, the Upanishads is one of the Hindu traditions in the philosophy and the mystical literature of the East, in which the Guru has a significant presence. So, it is not exaggeration to say that the Upanishads are collections of texts about the Guru's dialogues with his disciples. In Vedic philosophy, the Guru is depicted as each one of three gods of the Hinduism, i.e., Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu. In these texts, the Guru is more with an outer aspect, so he is often interpreted as Brahma and Rishi (sage), that is, the religious leaders who teach the eternal truths and secrets of sacrificial rituals to their new disciples. However, the Guru sometimes is of outer or inner aspect in the authentic philosophy of Upanishads. The Guru's outer aspect is not but the very Dhira and the undisturbed man, whereas the inner aspect of the Guru refers to the spiritual and the inner guide who manifests in the depth of new disciple's existence and guides him, after traversing the way stations of mystic journey.