Journal of Plant Production Research
Year:2018 | Volume:25 | Issue:3 |Papers Count:12

Background and objectives: Black cumin is a dicot herbs, herbaceous annual that belongs to the Buttercup family. It has been reported that this plant is native to West Asia, with Middle East and the India subcontinent origin. Previous studies in black cumin showed that seed yield had positive significant correlation with biomass, seeds per follicle, seed per plant, plant height, 1000 seed weight, number of stem branch and harvest index. Variation in black cumin ecotypes is a good source for study of the relationships among yield and its components and breeding program. This study aimed to investigate grain yield potential in different Iranian black cumin ecotypes, the relationship between yield and its components, and to determine the most effective traits on yield. Materials and methods: In order to study the diversity, correlation coefficients and path analysis of traits related to yield, 16 Iranian black cumin ecotypes were collected form Ahvaz, Bojnoord, Dasthe moghan, Gonbad, Gorgan, Jovian, Kashmar, Kerman, Marivan, Mashhad, Oromieh, Sabzevar, Saravan, Shirvan, Zabol and Zahedan. These ecotypes were cultivated in randomized complete block design with three replications in the field of Agricultural University of Shirvan. Day to begin of flowering, 50% of flowering, end of flowering, height, number of stem branches, number of follicles per plant, weight of follicle, number of seeds per follicle, 1000 seed weight, biological yield, harvest index and seed yield were evaluated. Means of treatments were compared using Duncan’ s multiple range tests in 0. 01 percent level. Path analysis was performed for seed yield performance based on selected characters by stepwise multivariate regression method. For data analysis software R, Statistica V8 and JMP V4 were used. Results: Based on the analysis of variance, ecotype effect was significant for all traits. Mashhad and Zahedan ecotypes had the highest and Oromieh ecotype had the lowest days to flowering. Mashhad and Gorgan had the highest seed yield with 1131 and 272. 7 kg/ha respectively. The correlation of seed yield with the number of follicles per plant, biomass plant, weight of follicle, number of branches and harvest index were positive and significant. Cluster analysis of ecotypes of different regions in different categories showed that there is not a good match between genetic diversity and geographic diversity. Stepwise regression analysis showed that about 68. 5% of the seed yield variation explained by number of capsules per plant. Then the biomass, 1000 seed weight and day to 50% flowering, which were entered into the model, which explained 4, 6. 2 and 1. 2% of the seed yield variation, respectively. In path analysis, the number of capsules per plant had the highest direct effect on seed yield(0. 59**) and the highest indirect effect of biomass effected by the number of capsules per plant(0. 395). Conclusion: Results showed that there was high genetic diversity among black cumin ecotypes for use in breeding programs, so they can be used to select the desired agronomic characteristics for developing new cultivar. In black cumin, the number of capsules per plant and seed weight had major contributions on yield and hence selection for these traits can possibly lead to improvement in yield of black cumin.

Background and objectives; The use of mulch, especially plastic mulch not only causes premature fruit, but also its effective to increase of yield, fruit quality and flavour. Plastic mulch in addition to increasing productivity and fruit quality, reduce water losses through evaporation, prevent the growth of weeds and ultimately reduce the use of herbicides. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of red plastic mulch on qualitative characteristics and antioxidant activity of different varieties of strawberries. Material and methods; In this study, to evaluate the effect of plastic mulch red on quality characteristics of different varieties of strawberry fruit, an experiment was conduct based on randomized complete block design with three treatments included ( Camarosa, Silva and Gavietta) with three replications during farming season 2015-2016 in Agricultural sciences and Natural Resources University (SANRU) research farm, Sari, Iran. Fruits, depending on the speed of the ripening were taken in a period of 4 days and after each harvest, the fruit of each plant is carefully weighed and fruits antioxidant activity, phenolic compounds and flavonoids were measured. Strawberry yield data and fruit phytochemical content data were an analyzed using ANOVA of SAS software (SAS 9. 2), and the SNK post hoc test was employed to compare treatment means. Results; The results showed that the red plastic mulch have significant effect on yield and fruit quality in strawberry cultivars. As with the fruit yield of strawberry cultivars Silva 17859. 35 g/per plant) was more than the other two varieties. Fruit anthocyanin in Camarosa and Gavietta cultivars, with (80. 56 mg /100g) and (77. 2 mg /100g) higher than Silva cultivar with(69. 26 mg /100g), respectively. but there was no significant difference between the two cultivars. The content of total phenolic and flavonoids fruits of Camarosa with 55. 53 mg /g and 60. 16 mg/g was higher than the other cultivars, respectively. Also, the results showed that the red plastic mulch had no significant effect on antioxidant activity of different cultivars. Conclusion; Based on the findings, strawberry fruit yield in Silva was higher than to the tow cultivars. Also, higher anthocyanin content, phenol and flavonoid content of Camarosa strawberry fruit can be genetic potential of Camarosa and quality of reflected light from the red mulch attributed. It is believed that in this study, genetic potential of cultivars and optical quality of the environment surrounding the plant, has an important role in improving the quality of strawberry fruit.

Background and objectives: Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana) is the sweetest plant in the world that is considered as suitable alternative to sugar for treating problems of obesity and diabetes, but its seeds are hard to germinate and most of them are often sterile due to incompatibility phenomenon during their formation. Also, it is difficult to produce homogenous population by seed propagation. For this reason, tissue culture is suitable approach for fast multiplication of this plant. The aim of this research was to find a rapid and efficient protocol for micropropagation of commercial medicinal stevia and mass propagation of its clones in large scale. Materials and methods: This research was conducted in two separate experiments. In the first experiment, the shoot tip explants were cultured on MS media supplemented with 0. 5, 1, 1. 5 and 2 mg/l concenteratians for each of plant growth regulators include IAA, NAA, IBA, BAP, Kin and GA3 as individual treatments with control treatment (MS medium without plant growth regulators). The experiment was carried out in a completely randomized design with four replications. The second experiment was designed based on the results of the first experiment. So, in the second experiment, the shoot tip explants were cultured on MS media supplemented with BAP (0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 mg/l) and Kin (0, 0. 5, 1 and 1. 5 mg/l). The tratment was arranged as factorial experiment in a completely randomized design with three replications. In rooting experiment, shootlets were cultured on MS and 1/2 MS medium supplemented with different concentrations of NAA (0, . 5, 1 and 1. 5 mg/l). This expriment was carried out in the same way as the second expriment. In all experiments, the traits were measured after 30 days of culture and incubation in growth chamber. Finally, the rooted plantlets were initially hardened to culture room conditions and then transferred to greenhouse. Results: The effect of plant growth regulators was significant for all measurd traits (P<0. 01); MS medium containing 1. 5 mg/l BAP was the most efficient treatment for the highest shoot number and internode number (with average of 5. 75 shoot and 19. 5 internode per plant, respectively) and the longest shoot length related to 2 mg/l Kin and 1. 5 & 2 mg/l GA3 and The best treatments for callusing were 1. 5 mg/l IBA, 1. 5 & 2 mg/l BAP. In the second expriment, the interaction effect of BAP×Kin was significant for all traits. The highest shoot multiplication rate and internode number were obtained from MS medium supplemented with 1 mg/l BAP + 1. 5 mg/l Kin (with average of 17. 67 shoot and 38. 67 internode per plant, respectively). This treatment was incubated in growth chamber for another one month and the shoot number was significantly increased from 17. 67 to 55 shoot per plant. Most efficient condition for root production (with average of 55 root per plant) was observed on 1/2 MS medium containing 1. 5 mg/l NAA. About 92% of in vitro developed plantlets were successfully established to greenhouse conditions. Conclusion: general, the results, like previous studies, indicated a positive and good response of the stevia plant to tissue culture. MS medium supplemented with 1 mg/l BAP + 1. 5 mg/l Kin was recommended for shoot proliferation of Stevia shoot tip explant and also, incubation of cultured explants in growth chamber for two months was remarkably increased the shoot number. The 1/2 MS medium containing 1. 5 mg/l NAA was resultful in root proliferation.

Background and Objectives: In olive, the propagation through cutting is a simple and fast method for maintenance of genetic uniformity as well as precocity as compared to seedlings. However, difficult to root behavior of some varieties is one of the problems in this regard that has different reasons. Hence, to enhance the rooting ability of two olive varieties, the present study was designed and implemented. Materials and Applications: The experiment was carried out as factorial experiment in a completely randomized block design with eight treatments, three replications and two application methods. The hormonal treatments included Auxin (Indole butyric acid (IBA)) at the concentration of 3000 ppm, alone or combined with putrecine (Put: 100, 200 ppm), Phloroglucinole (PG: 125, 250 ppm), Tyrosine (Thyr: 250, 500 ppm). The application of treatments was done by two methods of soaking (immersion of cutting bases in a solution) or foliar application (spraying the treatments on the cuttings). Results: The results showed that the reaction of two olive cultivars was different to the applied treatments, so that rooting percentage and longest root length did not affect the cultivar, but the other measured parameters were different in two cultivars. Root number, root length, fresh and dry weight of root in Mission was more than Koroneiki cultivar. The leaf area and also the survival rate of olive cuttings after transplanted to pot were higher in Koroneiki compared to Mission cultivar. The results showed that all treatments increased root number, fresh weight, dry weight, rooting percentage, leaf area and survival rate of olive cuttings significantly compared to control treatment, while the highest increase was observed in auxin treatments in joint with PG (250 ppm) or put (200 ppm) compared to control treatment. Regardless of the olive cultivar, the application of treatment method is also considered to be significant, Hence, the highest number of roots and their length, root fresh / dry weight were recorded in soaking Application while the higher number of new leaves, leaf area, number of new shoots and their length as well as rooting percentage were found in mico-cuttings treated though foliar spray. Conclusion: The results of this study clearly showed that the joint application of auxin with some chemical compounds such as phloroglucinol, putrescin and tyrosine can improve the rooting of olive cuttings and their joint application in commercial nurseries is recommended to propagate olive cultivars by cuttings.

Background and objectives: Garlic (Allium sativum L. ) is one of the main vegetable crops grown in Iran. Garlic occupies a prominent position among human foods, not only as a condiment, but also due to its therapeutic properties, attributed to the presence of bioactive compounds (25). Garlic yield are varied with agricultural practices and cultivar. Application of the required nutrients through chemical fertilizers alone can have deleterious effect on soil health and can lead to unsustainable yields, while integration of chemical fertilizers with organic manures and biofertilizers can maintain soil health and soil productivity (3). Numerous bacteria are beneficial for plant productivity. Free-living soil bacteria such as Pseudomonas, Azotobacter and Azospirillum spp could add nutrients through the natural processes of nitrogen fixation, solubilizing phosphorus, and stimulating plant growth through the synthesis of growth-promoting substances (20 and 26). Hence, this experiment carried out in order to evaluate the effect of chemical, organic and bio-fertilizers on yield and some physiological characteristics of landrace garlic in Guilan climatic condition. Materials and methods: This experiment was performed in 2016-2017 cropping season as split plot based on complete block design with three replications in Rasht, Iran. Three nitrogen sources including vermicompost (15 ton/ha), urea (100 kg N/ha), integrated management nutrient (7. 5 ton/ha + 50 kg N/ha) and 10 biological inoculations including without inoculation as control, Azospirillum brasilense, Azospirillum lipoferum, Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Azotobacter, Azospirillum + Pseudomonas, Azospirillum + Azotobacter, Pseudomonas + Azotobacter, Azospirillum + Pseudomonas + Azotobacter comprised experimental treatments. Results: Results showed that the maximum plant height, leaf numbers, biological weight per plant and bulb yield were obtained under the application of chemical nitrogen fertilizer along with Pseudomonas + Azospirillum spp bacteria. Also, there was a positive and significant correlation between bulb yield and some characteristic such as plant height, leaf numbers and biological weight per plant. In addition, the simultaneous application of Azospirillum and Azotobacter biological fertilizers under using vermicompost caused to enhance bulb yield. In this experiment, simultaneous usage of all studied bio-fertilizers enhanced bulb yield under integrated nutrition system. Conclusion: In general, bulb yield and its attributes showed difference responses to the application of chemical, organic and bio-fertilizers. Based on results of this experiment, different biological fertilizers could be beneficial related to type of nutrition systems for bulb yield enhancement. In addition, the application of Azospirillum + Pseudomonas could be recommendable to improve biological and bulb yield of garlic in conventional agriculture and under region climatic condition.

Background and objectives: Due to the severe water deficit in recent years, and according to agricultural sector policies, drip irrigation has been carried out in most plants of Iran. Subsurface irrigation and deficit irrigation were not studied. In arid and semiarid regions where water resources are scarce, in order to Protection of soil and water resources, irrigation water use efficiency and soil salinity is an important issue. In order to evaluate and resolve drip irrigation system problems, water management in the field, subsurface irrigation and deficit irrigation a lot of research has not been done in South Kerman. Although surface drip irrigation is an efficient irrigation method, it has had relatively limited expansion due to several disadvantages such as soil surface evaporation and lose of water. Recently, subsurface irrigation method that is able to avoid most of the aforementioned drawbacks has been introduced in the world. Due to high sunlight and high soil surface evaporation in many regions of Iran, subsurface irrigation can be very useful in decreasing evaporation. On the other hand, by applying regulated deficit irrigation, it can be optimized by improving the quality of the product and Saving Water. The objective of this work is to assess the performance of subsurface irrigation and to compare it to a surface drip irrigation system. Materials and methods: In this study, which was carried out at the Research Station of South Kerman Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center during 2015-2016, the effect of different deficit irrigation methods (Irrigation with 80%, 60-100% and 100% water requirement) under three methods of surface drip irrigation, subsurface drip irrigation and Deep subsurface irrigation were investigated on vegetative development(length of the main branch, length of the sub branches, Number of buds, Trunk diameter, Tree height and Canopy volume) and yield of citrus (oranges). Results: The results showed that deficit irrigation with 80% water requirement under deep subsurface irrigation, in addition to 33. 65% water saving, was not significantly different in terms of vegetative characteristics and yield compared to full irrigation under surface drip irrigation. However, deficit irrigation under surface drip irrigation due to higher losses of water causes the plant to withstand and reduce the yield of the product. Intermittent deficit irrigation with 60-100% water requirement had better vegetative characteristics and weaker yields than uniform deficit irrigation with 80% water requirement. Conclusion: deep subsurface irrigation showed the best performance by preventing water evaporation and proper distribution of moisture in the root zone with 20% more canopy volume and 28% higher yield than the other two methods of irrigation.

Background and objectives: Intercropping can be considered as one of the ways to increase yield and sustainability of production per unit area. Also, medicinal plants play an important role in human health in the world. Many people in different countries of the world tend to use these drugs. The need for these plants is increasing due to the production of herbal medicines and cosmetics in the national and international markets. Therefore, improve quality of natural medicinal plants is an absolute necessity. In order to improvement of soil fertility and hyssop (Hyssopus Officinalis) guality by biological nitrogen fixation with bacteria is known by lentil (Lens culinaris), the experiment was conducted to evaluate the different combinations of intercropping hyssop and lentil. Materials and methods: The experiment was performed in 2016, based on randomized complete block design with three replications in the Research Field of Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran. The experimental treatments includes: pure culture of hyssop (A), pure culture of lentil (B), 100% hyssop + 25% lentil (C), 100% hyssop + 50% lentil (D), 100% lentil + 25% hyssop (E) and 100% lentil + 50% hyssop (F). Results: The results of this study showed that the highest dry weight of hyssop per unit area was obtained from its pure culture (A) and 100% hyssop + 25% lentil (C). The highest content of hyssop essential oil (without statistical difference) was obtained from 100% hyssop + 25% lentil (C) and 100% hyssop + 50% lentil (D). Means comparison of hyssop essential oil yield per unit area showed that the pure culture of hyssop (A) and 100% hyssop + 25% lentil (C) had the maximum amounts without statistical difference. The yield of lentil in its solecropping treatment showed the highest value, which showed a significant difference with different intercropping treatment. The lowest yield of lentil per unit area was obtained from treatment C (25% lentil + 100% hyssop), which showed a significant difference with other treatments. Also, the results of mean comparisons showed that D treatment (100%hyssop + 50%lentil) had the highest 1000-grain weight, which was subjected to B (sole cropping of lentil) and C (25% lentil + 100% hyssop) treatments in the same statistical group. Comparison of mean values showed that sole cropping (A) and 100% lentils + 25% hyssop (E) had the highest leaf nitrogen content and lentil solecropping (B) had the highest nitrogen content in lentil seed. The comparison of Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) showed that all mixing ratios of hyssop and lentil (with the exception of 100% lentil + 50% hyssop-F) had the LER>1 which shows the lead of intercropping to pure culture. It should be noted that treatments C (100% hyssop + 25% lentil) and D (100% hyssop + 50% lentil) had the highest LER. Conclusion: Overall, the results showed that the intercropping of hyssop and lentil could stabilize the production by improving the use of resources. Also it could be significantly effective by reducing the consumption of chemical inputs with nitrogen fixation towards the ecological production of medicinal plants.

Background and objectives: Due to lack of water resources in the country, adopting deficit irrigation techniques and efficient use of limited water resources is necessary and inevitable. Appropriate strategies to deal with water shortage, use the grafting technique. Hybrid rootstocks have strong and extensive root system to absorb water and nutrients to the plant (scion). So, the use grafting technique of fruit vegetable, can be used as an approach to increase plant resistance to deficit irrigation is raised. Numerous studies in the world, on the basis of specific features of vine crops rootstocks, such as resistance to pathogens, low temperatures and soil salinity have been conducted. As well as various mass vine crops, mixed reaction to the deficit irrigation conditions. But information about the composition of the Various rootstock and scion (indigenous) in response to deficit irrigation have been reported rarely. Materials and Methods: A field experiment was performed to determine grafting and deficit irrigation effects on the some quantitative and qualitative traits of Souski-e-Sabz melon (Landrace). Experimental design was conducted as split plots based on randomized complete block design with three irrigation levels of 60 (5417. 63 cubic meters per hectare), 80 (6853. 64 cubic meters per hectare) and 100 (8289. 65 cubic meters per hectare) % in, and (consumed water) respectively, based on total available water depletion in the research field of higher education institution Imam Khomeini (RA) under the Ministry of Agriculture in Karaj in 2014 and four grafting combinations include grafting onto Shintozwa and Ferro-RZ, self grafted and non grafted (as control) on three replicates with drip irrigation system were evaluated. Water requirement of melon at different stages of growth and development was measured by a profile probe set. Results: The results were demonstrated that grafted plants onto cucurbit rootstocks had significantly higher values for vegetative growth, yield and water use efficiency in comparison with un-grafted plants. The highest (4. 45 kg/m-3) biomass water use efficiency (WUEb) was recorded in 60% irrigation level and also no significant differences between irrigation levels of 60 and 80 % were observed. The highest (7. 06 kg/m-3) and lowest (5. 59 kg/m-3) fruit yield water use efficiency (WUEy) was recorded in grafting combinations of Souski-e-Sabz onto Shintozwa and Souski-e-Sabz onto Souski-e-Sabz respectively. The maximum (194. 12 ml/24ha) and minimum (92. 01 ml/24ha) volume of xylem sap was recorded in plants grafted onto Shintozwa and Souski-e-Sabz onto Souski-e-Sabz respectively. The maximum (39. 23 tons per hectare) and minimum (27. 16 tons per hectare) marketable yield were related to 100 and 60 % irrigation levels respectively. The concentration of N, P and K, in leaves was improved significantly in grafted than in ungrafted and self grafted plants. The highest (12. 56° Brix) total soluble solids of fruits were obtained from grafted melon plants under deficit irrigation 80 %. The total acidity was no significantly influenced by the irrigation levels and grafting combinations. Conclusion: The findings of this study showed that the grafting combinations of Souski-e-Sabz onto shintozwa and Ferro-RZ rootstocks, in most of the quantitative and qualitative traits, with no negative effects on the quality of fruit, were more effective than non-grafted and own-rooted plants.

Introduction Sesame (Sesamum indicum L. ) is known as the king of oil seeds due to the high oil content (50-60%) of its seed. Nitrogen (N) is one of the most important nutrients in crop production agroecosystems. Excessive application of N in crop production causes a reducing trend in nitrogen use efficiency (NUE). Optimization of nitrogen and plant density is a management approach to conserve resources and decline environmental pollutions. Response surface methodology (RSM) is defined as a set of mathematical and statistical techniques that are used to develop, to improve or to optimize a product. RSM is a statistical method for optimization of multiple factors which determine optimum process conditions by combining experimental designs. In this study, optimization of nitrogen fertilizer and plant density on yield and nitrogen efficiency indicators of sesame using central composite design (CCD) for RSM was done. Materials and methods An experiment was conducted using CCD with 13 treatments and two replications at the Agricultural Research Station, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during the growing season of 2015-2016. The treatments were allocated based on low and high levels of plant density (10 and 40 plants. m-2, respectively) and nitrogen (0 and 100 kg Urea ha-1, respectively). Seed yield, biological yield, nitrogen uptake efficiency, nitrogen utilization efficiency and nitrogen use efficiency were measured and calculated as dependent variables and changes of these variables were evaluated by a regression model. Lack-of-fit test was used to evaluate the quality of the fitted model. The adequacy of the model was tested by analysis of variance. In general, the full quadratic polynomial equation was tested to determine the significance of the model and the component of the model (linear, squared and first-order interaction terms). The quality of the fitted model was judged using the determination coefficient (R2). Results and discussion The results showed that effect of linear component was significant on all studied characteristics except for nitrogen utilization efficiency. Effect of square component was significant on all studied criteria. Interaction effect of full quadratic was significant on nitrogen use efficiency. Lack of fit test had no significant effect on the studied traits. The full square model for the response variables gave insignificant lack-of-fit indicating that the data of experimental were satisfactorily explained. The highest estimated and observed values of seed yield were obtained for 25 plants. m-2 and 500 kg Urea ha-1 (1320. 52 kg. ha-1) and 25 plants. m-2 and 100 kg Urea ha-1 (1272. 45 kg. ha-1), respectively. The maximum estimated and observed values of nitrogen use efficiency were calculated for 10 plants. m-2 and without N fertilizer with 11. 41 and 11. 28 kg seed/kg N of soil, respectively. Conclusion The slope of seed yield increased by an increase in density up to 25 plants. m-2 was higher under high levels of N fertilizer than under low levels, because the plant growth was improved in high amount of N fertilizer and resulted in high seed yield. By increasing nitrogen fertilizer declined nitrogen use efficiency. In general, it seems that resource use optimization such as nitrogen fertilizer and plant density based on the central composite design may be suitable cropping approach for sustainable production of sesame.

Background and objective: Invasive species are one of the most important weed management challenges and diagnosis of these plants in early stages can be very effective for their control. This diagnosis is not possible except by regular monitoring. The map preparation of spatial distribution of invasive species and their Geographic distribution range is necessary due to the development power and very high distribution of invasive plants as well as a wide range tolerance of these plants to different environmental conditions and it can be considered as the most important performance in integrated pest management. Material and method: In order to identification of the susceptible areas for invasive weeds, such as Spurge (Euphorbia heterophylla L. and Euphorbia maculata L. ), Morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea (L. ) Roth), Wild melon (Cucumis melo L. ) and Asian spiderflower (Cleome viscose L. ), the ecological requirements (Minimum, optimum and maximum temperatures, EC, pH) of these plants were determined by using the available resources. In order to determine the range of studied environmental variables, used of a 10-year average of the weather data of the province. It should be noted that in this study, the May, June and July months were considered as the months in which seed germination of these plants were possible. Also, acidity and soil salinity determined by data of 505 points of agricultural land in Golestan province. Recalling the classified information layers was performed by GIS software (version 10). Finally, the possibility of the presence or absence of each the above plant species were spatially determined. Results: The results of this research indicated that wide range of Golestan province were susceptible to invasion by species such as Cucumis melo L., Cleome viscosa L. and Euphorbia maculata L. with 790325, 772884 and 708968 ha-1, respectively. In terms of degree of importance, Euphorbia heterophylla L. was placed in second rank (susceptible areas: 583700 ha-1 and unsusceptible areas: 225025 ha-1). In this species temperature and salinity were the major limitation factor for distribution. There was not particular concern about wide distribution the species of introduced morning glory in this province. Because distribution maps indicated that there were no limitations regarding temperatures and EC for germination and establishment of this weed through the Golestan Province. But regarding pH, there is a major in increasing distribution extent in the province rank (susceptible areas: 9887 ha-1 and unsusceptible areas: 798838 ha-1). Conclusion: Therefore, it is necessary that the first three species be considered as management and research priorities in the province and management should be directed toward measures to prevent them spread in the province and even other provinces.