IRANIAN JOURNAL OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Year:2006 | Volume:59 | Issue:2|Papers Count:23

Geological, mining, agricultural and industrial activities may be the origins of introducing toxic materials into the ecosystem. If traces of toxic elements are introduced three times the permitted doze into human’s body through geochemical circulation, it can be hazardous in the long run. In this research, the adverse effects of alteration zones on groundwater quality have been investigated in Tarom Range, Iran. Surface and groundwater water samples (from alteration zones and various as well as from rock types were taken from the study area. The samples were analyzed for pH, TDS, main cations and anions, as well as for trace elements. The hydro geochemical data were also analyzed using multivariate analysis of cluster and discriminate analyses. The results indicate that the naturally contaminated water can be separated from fresh water using multivariate analysis. The water quality groups resulting from multivariate analysis were evaluated using Stiff, Piper and Wilcox diagrams. Such quality water bears a sour taste; it is dangerous and particularly very dangerous if used for drinking; it as well as seriously harmful to plants if used for irrigation.

Decrease in land potential, land degradation, happens due to various factors. One of the important factors causing degradation of lands and desertification is soil and water salinization that occurs in arid and semi arid regions. Factors influencing soil and water salinization are natural as well as anthropogenic. The main objective in this research was to get knowledge of saline soils as well as to study the factors affecting land degradation and soil salinization in Varamin Plain. Towards this aim, surface water, groundwater, land use, geology, and soil factors were studied. First, the limit of watershed was determined, and then with the help of geology and topography maps as well as satellite images together with field-work, saline soils and factors affecting land degradation were made known. Land use condition (with the help of remotely sensed data and field-work) was obtained. With the use of land use map, satellite imaging and remotely sensed data, geology and topography maps, the homogenous units were obtained on the satellite imaging. Soil sampling in these units was done and EC and SAR parameters obtained. Then with help of GIS, iso_EC and iso_SAR were obtained. With the use of in-use and pizometer wells data and hydrometery stations, ground and surface water were studied and influences of each on land degradation determined. Also, influences of geology formations on surface water and groundwater were studied. Results indicated that wide regions of south, southwest, southeast, northwest and west of Varamin plain were degraded. From margin to central plain the degree of land degradation and salinization was decreased. From center to northeastern part of the plain there isn’t any serious salinization observed. Also, the studies revealed that climatic conditions, rise of water table, use of saline water for irrigation, unauthorized deep well excavations, improper exploitation of groundwater sources, intrusion of urban and industrial sewage in to Jajrood river, entrance of irrigation drainage water in to river, management, lock of drainage systems, and existence of Miocene formations are among the causes of land degradation.

There are several methods of estimating runoff from a catchmant area. One of these methods is the hydrological model. Hyrological models by simulating hyrological processes, make it possible to evaluate runoff from rainfall in the shortest possible time and with the lowest possible costs. However there does not exist the possibility of measurement of all cases in all cachments, so, there is the necessity of choosing those models which can evaluate hydrological processes with a minimum number of parameters. One of these models is SWAT. This model has been developed by Arnold in 1972 and improved towards perfection by Arnold & Wiliams in 1996. The model receives the daily raifall, daily discharge and daily evapotranspiration, after being optimized parameters. This study was carried out in Kasilian catchment area in Iran. Results indicated the value of determination coefficient to be satisfactory for the cachment. In addition, the results of model revealed that ABF, CN2 and REVAPC parameters are the most sensitive among other parameters. Finally the effect of hyrological parameters on the streamflow is evaluated. SWAT model simulated the hydrological processes for agricultural and rangeland uses better than for forest land use.

Salinity of lands around Ormieh lake watershed, specifically to its northeast, east and southeast as well as a development of salt marsh which harms agricultural lands originates from morphological problems. This paper is an analysis of the main factors related to this phenomenon in parts of the Ormieh lake watershed (Sarab plain). In this study, experiments were carrid out and results obtained of soil, surface water, and ground water, at different points in Sarab plain .Then, such varibles as Electrical Conductivity (EC), Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) and Total Soluble Salt (TSS) were analysed. The isodepth groundwater maps of Sarab plain have been drawn on the basis of water table data of pisometric as well as observatory wells. The results indicate the cause of salinity of the lands in Sarab Plain to be of geological origion (its adjacency to the marl and gypsum formation). A contribution of factors such as semiarid climate, evaporation and salt groundwater uplift along with saline surface water have intensified the salinity process and increased the development of salinity throughout the lands of Sarab plain. At present, salinity phenomenon threatens agricultural lands of Sarab Plain. Transfer of salts by Ajchi river toward Tabriz Plain constitute a salt pollution source for groundwater and surface water.

In this research it is attempted to optimize relations between flow discharge and suspended sediment discharge in selected hydrometric stations located on the main branch of Gorganroud River. Homogeneity of data was initially tested using Smirnov-Kolmogrov technique. Then, using daily discharge data and employing "Technical Hydrology" software, monthly hydrographs of the discharge were drawn for all selected stations. Considering hydro-climatic factors that affect the suspended sediment discharge, such as hydrograph condition, classified discharge, and time, some models were tested on the basis of the sediment transport equation. Some regression models were obtained between flow and suspended sediment discharge, and values of “a” and “b” parameters were then resulted for each parts of the model. To select the optimum model, mean squares of errors were used as an index according to which models with low values of mean squares of errors were selected as optimum ones for each station. Results indicated that general regression model which uses only one equation as sediment rating curve equation bears the highest error among all tested models for estimating suspended sediment. So, it is recommended to employ the models with low errors for estimating sediment discharge in the study area.

Debris flow occurrence in mountain watersheds is in need of large amounts of sediment that is usually supplied by shallow land slides. A study of unstable slope as well as safety analysis is one of the important ways in debris flow hazard assessment. In this study which was carried out in Ziarat watershed, Gorgan, it was found out that (according to geomorphologic unit work) bank erosion unit work plays the main role in sediment supply from Tolboneh subwatershed. Soil mechanic analysis was carried out with soil sampling done in the unstable slope in bank erosion unit work. Safety factor (F) analysis indicated that in all samples F was less than one. Clay mineral determination was done using XRD test. The dominant clays in all samples were Ilite and Chlorite, with kaolinite as negligible.

One of the important problems in watershed management and water resources planning is maximum flood discharge estimation for small watersheds, due to a lack of hydrometric stations or data. In this study, two sets of methods were evaluated for determining the peak flood discharge, one is based on watershed area and another is based on physiographic and rain factors of the Watersheds. Watersheds were selected in North (Gorgan, Gilan and Mazandaran provinces as one region) and Azarbaiejan (East and West Azarbaiejan) as another region to determining rain depth efficient. The objective of this study was to find suitable methods for maximum flood discharge estimation in small watersheds. The results indicated that the Horton method in area base methods and SCS Graphical method in physiographic base methods had lower error in two regions. The FHWA method showed the maximum error for peak flood estimation in these regions. An error difference among area base methods wasn’t more in two regions, but in physiographic methods amount of error in North region was much more than the Azarbaijan region. The results indicate, that amount of rainfall was a major factor that it influenced on errors. Generally, SCS Graphical method was showed a minimum error in compared with other selected methods.

This research will discuss an assessment of the recreational value of Sisangan Forest Park, and estimate a visitor’s willingness to pay (WTP) for recreational benefits obtained, based on contingent valuation (CV) and dichotomous choice (DC). For determination of visitor’s willingness to pay Logit model was employed, the estimation parameters being based on methods of maximum likelihood (ML). Results indicate that 78.8% of visitors are willing to pay for recreational values at the Sisangan Forest Park. The mean value for willingness to pay for the recreational annual value of the park is Rls 2477 per visit. The total recreational annual value was estimated at 2535835 Rls/ha (291 US$/ha) for the Park. Also, results revealed that forest parks benefitled from a considerable recreational value. This provides enough justification for policy makers to maintain the quality of forest parks, and along with that to avoid the degradation of forest resources.

In the coastal area of Jafroud, a region in the North East of Khomamcity, Pinus pinea trees are grown.  Early experiments (spraying field studies) indicated that Pinus pinea was faced with a high lacking of "N", "P", and "K" elements in this region. A factorial fertilizer study in the form of randomized complete design with four replications was carried out in the region. Factor 1 consisted of 3 levels of nitrogen fertilizer (a1=112, a2=224, and a3=336 kgN/ha), factor 2 of 3 levels of super phosphate fertilizer (b1=56, b2=112, and b3=168 kgP2O5/ha) and factor 3 was consistent of 3 levels of potassium chloride fertilizer (c1= 22.8, c2=45.6, and c3=68.2 kgK2O/ha). Fertilizing had been carried out in two times, one in August 1999 and the other in March 2000. The purpose was to identify the effect of fertilizers on height, diameter, and tree needles as well as on the concentration of "N", "P" and "K" elements in the trees. The results in dictated that the effect of the mixture of "N.P.K" fertilizers on the tree height and growth of tree needles was significant. The highest needle growth and tree height was observed in the a3b2c2 treatment. There was a high and significant correlation observed between tree needle growth and height. The results also indicated that the main growth limiting element was N.

Because of difficulties arising in oak (Quercus castaneifolia) regeneration, in hyrcanian forests, determination of the best acorn planting technique for this species is indispensable. In this research a study site of northern aspect, clay loamy soil and 250 m above sea level elevation was prepared in the southern part of Noor in Mazandaran Province. Four different acorn planting techniques (seeding, accompanied seeding with soil scarification and acorn sowing in 5, 10 and 15 cm depth) were performed in fenced silvicultural plots. Following the first growing season the results revealed that: though soil scarification improved acorn emergence, but the best treatment was sowing in 5 cm depth. Seedlings emergence under different planting techniques was continued till the end of growing season with an increasing trend but for the acorns positioned on the soil surface (seeding, and seeding accompanied with soil scarification treatments), this procedure came to an end in July.  Average seedling survival rate differed from 42% in seeding scarification treatment to 71 % in 5 cm sowing depth treatment, but there was no significant difference observed between planting techniques. As a whole, based on this study, acorn sowing can be proposed in 5 cm depth for seed planting in the study area as well as in other similar districts.

A low wood density and construction of a skidder uphill is a problem that results in extraction of a  volume of wood. For a comparison of uphill and downhill skidding two parcels were taken in to studied. Skidding time was assessed between the felling area and depot using "time study" method. Regresion equation was employed in the analyses. Results of study are persented as follows: Total volume of wood extracted uphill and downhill, and their respective skidding times were 200 m3, 16 H and 285m3, 11H. Mean volume of wood was 12.5m3, 23.5m3, for each cycle 3.2m3, 5m3, and for each day 34m3, 43m3 respectively. Maximum volume of wood at each cycle was 6m3, 8.5m3. By increase in skidding distance, time and cost of skidding were increased for positive gradients twice as much as those for negative gradients. Amount of wood produced in positive gradients was at a lower level than that in negative gradients.

Variations in fiber saturation point (FSP) along the longitudinal axis and through the cardinal directions, in beech tree (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) were investigated. Specimens, from two sound beech trees cut from Veisar forest (Caspian natural hardwood forest in Iran) were prepared. Then, 4 disks from different intervals in each tree trunk were taken. The experiments were performed on the specimens taken systematically from the four geographical directions in each disk. To determine the FSP of never–dried specimens, "porous pressure plate" method was employed. Then, the values obtained were statistically analyzed. The results indicate that FSP variations through the longitudinal axis do not follow a regular pattern and that they are not significantly different. Nevertheless, it was observed that the first height (at 215 cm) carries a minimum value (27.1%) while the third height (i.e., at 555 cm) a maximum (31.0 %). FSP variations (in the four directions) in the beech tree do not seem to be significantly different. The highest and the lowest values were found to be respectively present on the eastern and western sides of the trees.

The present work is a study of the variation in natural durability of Cupressus sempervirense against white rot (Coriolus versicolor) at three heights from sea level. In the conditions mentioned, evaluation was made while using Kollechal method according to DIN 8216 and B. S, 838: 1961, in a completely randomized design. In addition to natural durability, specimens were contaminated with cultured fungus for fourteen weeks (22°C and 75% relative humidity), after which, weight loss, comperessive strength (parallel to grain), and hardness of specimens were assessed. Weight loss of specimens (from 40) and 500 meter heights above sea level was more and accompanied by less durability was a significant diffrence observed among heights above sea level, concerning weight loss. Compressive strength (parallel to grain) was related to height above sea level so that samples from the highest level had the highest strengths. There was a significant difference observed among hardness of samples from the three different heights above sea level.

This study was performed with the aim of investigating the possibility of making fluting paper from colza straw through soda pulping process in comparison with rice straw. Samples of colza and rice straw were prepared from the crop fields in the Bahnemir city of Mazandaran province. Chemical components of cellulose ,lignin ,extractives and ash were assessed as 41.1 , 17.16 , 8.12 , 6.21% for colza and 48.7 , 18.23 , 5.21 , 13 % for rice straw , respectively . In order to study the full potential of colza straw and determine the proper needed treatments suitable for making fluting paper, three levels of pulp yields were selected in either cases of colza or rice straw. The pulp yields and kappa numbers of selected treatments were in the range of 52.93 to 59.68 % and 67.1 to 97.17 for colza straw, and 56.32 to 68.12 % and 17.15 to 31.01 for rice straw, respectively. The pulps of selected treatments were refined to the freeness levels of 300 ± 50 ml,CSF and used to make standard 127 gr/m2 fluting handsheet paper, the physical and strength properties of which were then evaluated. Handsheet physical properties of calliper and density, along with strength properties of tear, burst and CMT were evaluated for each selected treatment of either colza or rice straw. On the basis of statistical analysis, papers from soda semichemical pulps of selected treatments of colza straw, in comparison with rice straw, were of lower density and higher strength properties, with the exception of burst index. Fluting papers of colza straw possess acceptable qualities as compared to other non-wood plants such as bagasse and cereal straws. In conclusion, colza straw can be recommended as suitable and new cellulosic resources for making fluting paper.

Studies show that location selection for plywood & veneer factories has not been done through proper planning in Iran and for that reason the production rate is not satisfactory. It is necessary for proper operational establishment of the units, in the future, and for solving the problem, scientific methods be employed. In the first stage, the effective indicators in location of the industry were identified and a hierarchy was constructed based on five major groups of criteria. The weight of the indicators was then established by Analytical Hierarchy Process. In the second stage, the values of the indicators, with regard to alternatives, were obtained from factories in public and private sectors. These weights were employed in TOPSIS to rank the alternatives. Finally the potential provinces were identified according to the priorities obtained through this technique. The results indicated that Kordestan province is the most suitable priority for plywood & veneer plants to be established in.

A quasol process was used to deink ONP (Old Newsprint) and MOW (Mixed Office Waste). Aqua-solvent and surfactants mixture was applied to dissolve, disperse and remove ink. The efficient dislodge of ink requires optimized conditions of retention time, temperature, solvent type and print age (i.e. aging). Finally, the contaminants, ink particles in particular, were removed along with the solvent by decantation. The results indicated that maximum brightness was achieved using 4 hours of retention time, 60◦C temperature, with a print age of 6 months for either of ONP or MOW. Xylene is preferred to dichloromethane; and dichloromethane cannot be applied through conventional devices. A simultaneous increase in retention time and temperature, and a decrease in print age will bring about an increase in brightness. Besides, separate increase of either retention time or temperature increased the brightness phenomenon. The lower the print age, the higher the final brightness achieved throughout the process. In this respect, a substantial part of brightness loss occurred during the first 6 months after printing and later the effect of aging on brightness becoming less significant. The interactive and independent influences of variables have been discussed illustratively and thoroughly.

This study was carried out during May – September, 2003 during which some of the effective factors in breeding bird nesting-site selection were surveyed. There are significance differences among nest site selection, on the basis of ANOVA test, For among the seven studied species. Whiskered Tern (Chlidonias hybridus) (67%) preferred > 170 cm water depth for nesting, while Little Bittern (Ixobrychus minitus) (53%) selected a shallower depth of water. Maximum and minimum nesting depths from surface water level were related to Great Reed Warbler (Acrocephalus arundinaceus), and Whiskered Tern (C.hybridus) along with Little Grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis), respectively. Whiskered Tern (C.hybridus) (40%) being highly dependent on vegetations, selected its nests around 0.25-0.5 m near to vegetation, while Little Grebe (T.ruficollis) avoided these regions.  Nests of Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus), Little Grebe (T.ruficollis) and Little Bittern (I.minitus) were made in the further distances, whereas, Whiskered Tern (C.hybridus) and Great Reed Warbler (A.arundinaceus) preferred colonial nests and avoided (with varying distances) boat passage regions. Maximum overlap in habitat as by SHOENER,1970 Index (0.93) was observed between Little Bittern (I.minitus) with Common Moorhen (G.chloropus) as well as between Little Bittern (I.minitus) and Little Grebe (T.ruficollis), whereas, a minimum overlap between Great Reed Warbler (A.arundinaceus) and Little Grebe (T.ruficollis) habitats.

There is great need for studies of wildlife populations in the current network of Iranian protected areas. Lack of information on many wildlife species hampers devising management plans for protected areas. Angouran Protected Area (APA), situated in southwest of Zanjan Province, is a case in point.  The area, 125000 ha in size, encompasses important remaining habitats for Armenian wild sheep.  The objective of this research, conducted from October 2003 to September 2004, was to study the size and demographic parameters of wild sheep population inhabiting APA.  Zanjan provincial Office of Environment (ZOE) provided figures of total wild sheep counts for period of 1993-2003.  The results of total count in the area by field personnel of ZOE showed that 1658 wild sheep were present in APA in 2004.  We checked this figure by dividing the area into 8 blocks, demarcated by physical features, and randomly chose 6 blocks to count sheep in each.  Total number of sheep thus obtained was 1588 heads and 95% C. I. ranged from 531 to 2647 heads.  Mean and variance of density were 0. 0125 and 0. 00018275 sheep/ha respectively.  Population growth rate from 1993 to 2003 was estimated by linear regression function (In N against time).  The slope of the line was 0. 2583 and its 95% C. I.  ranged from 0. 3337 to 0. 1729.  The intrinsic growth rate for such sheep with mean adult weight of 24. 106 kg is estimated to be 0. 47.  Mortality rate for adult male sheep was assessed by life table established based on collected skulls during the study.  Also, extinction probabilities for wild sheep population of the study area were estimated by use of Vortex software.  Six different scenarios were modeled and input variables changed so that the results of simulations would mimic the observed population trend over the initial (1993-2003) period.  Simulations were carried out for 100 years.  First extinction usually happened after 30 years (range 30. 18 to 57. 7) with standard errors of 5. 09 to 6. 85 years.  Fecal parasites of the sheep were also studied, the following genera were found: Trichoris and Marshalagia.  Common nematodes and oocytes of unknown parasites were also detected.

In arid environments, episodically pulsed resources are important components of annual water and nutrient supply for plants. However, plant capabilities for using pulsed resources may vary based on the phenological stages. This experiment was aimed at testing whether higher adaptation of young seedling, for using pulsed resources, leads to a higher establishment under competitive effects from older individuals. The second aim was to see if there is a coexistence or trade-off in plant strategies during pulses and in inter-pulse periods. A glasshouse experiment was conducted in a target-neighbour design of a size-asymmetric competition. Stable isotopes of nitrogen were used for measuring plant resource uptake from pulses, and tolerance to the inter-pulse conditions. A greater root/shoot ratio and finer root system enhanced capability of young seedling of Panicum antidotale (blue panicgrass) for using resources as pulsed rather than continuously supplied. Higher resource uptake during pulse periods improved establishment of young Panicum in mixed cultures with older individuals. Nevertheless, a trade-off was observed in plant strategies, higher capability of young seedlings for using pulsed resources was corresponded with a lower mean residence time of nitrogen, which indicates lower tolerance to resource deficit during inter-pulse periods. Therefore it is supposed that under field conditions, higher utilization of pulsed resources leads to the improved seedlings establishment by Panicum, only when inter-pulse periods are short enough that plants do not loose the absorbed resources.

Controlled fire is one of the management practices for improving the composition of plant cover in grasslands. It causes the omit ion of invader shrubs and prevents natural regeneration of unpalatable species. Finally regeneration of palatable plants, due to controlled firing, causes to produce reasonably sufficient forage. The fire accident, that occurred in enclosures of Sardul in Khalkhal in summer of 1998, caused the change of species composition in 3 hectares of the in and out of enclosure lands. In this study change of the species composition and canopy covering were studied following firing operations and while using Quadrate and Transects studied before. The obtained results of the spring 1998 were compared with the previously obtained data. The results indicated shrubs had been reduced from 24.81% to 2%, but perennial grasses increased from 51.97% to 80.63%. By a comparison of percentages, we can conclude that percentage of total plant covering has been decreased. Results also indicated an increase in plant percentage in Class I and a decrease of plant percentage in Class III. As a matter of fact, decrease in quantity of plant covering was temporary while, quality was shown to improve. Regeneration of the fired shrubs and perennial grasses was studied again in 2002. Results indicate that about 30% of shrubs (Astragalus aureus) and 100% of perennial grasses (Bromus tomentelus, Festuca ovina) had been regenerated and total plant covering had been increased to 64.5% Thus it can be concluded that under conditions where soil erosion is not a constraint , eliminating on aggressive spiny plants causes improvement in and development of perennial grasses.