AGROECOLOGY (بوم شناسی کشاورزی)
Year:2018 | Volume:10 | Issue:1 (35) |Papers Count:20

Introduction Food production to meet the demand for the world's growing population will be more difficult in the second half of the century than the first half. The increase in world population will result to greater pressure on agricultural lands in order to produce more crops. Therefore, the idea of increasing production per unit of area is inevitable by the applying chemical fertilizers which consecutively leads to serious environmental consequences. The same is true for production of cosmetics and pharmaceutical species including Aloe vera gel which is attracting excessive interest during the recent years. Scientific investigations of A. vera show that when it is prepared as a gel, it is more effective in treating stomach ailments, gastrointestinal problems, skin diseases, constipation and radiation injury. In most of the experiments conducted on Aloe vera, only the morphological characteristics were considered and the physiological aspects as well as the growth indices have been overlooked. On the other hands there is a limited number of published scientific resources regarding the application of manure and biological fertilizers on Aloe vera. The aim of this study was to evaluate different nutritional management methods in production of Aloe vera as a medicinal plant under the climatic conditions of Bushehr province so as to replace the chemical fertilizers by the manure and biological ones. Introducing such ecological methods could take a step forward towards the sustainable production of this valuable medicinal species. Materials and Methods The experiment was arranged as split plots based on randomized complete block design with three replications on a land area of 500 m2. The main plot factor included the application of manure (0 and 20 tons per ha) and the sub plot factor was the application of biological and chemical fertilizers in five levels: 1-Chemical fertilizer (80 kg triple superphosphate per ha and 200 kg urea per ha), 2-biological fertilizer Mycorrhiza, 3-biofertilizer Nitragin which contained three genus of Azotobacter spp., Pseudomonas spp. and Azospirillum spp. 4-the combination of two biological fertilizers (Mycorrhiza+Nitragin), and 5-the unfertilized control. Leaf area index (LAI) and total dry matter (TDM) were measured 150 days after planting in monthly intervals. The measured values of LAI and TDM were subjected to functional growth analysis and growth indices including crop growth rate (CGR), relative growth rate (RGR), net assimilation rate (NAR) and leaf area ratio (LAR) were calculated. Result and Discussion The results showed that the interaction between manure and either of chemical or biological fertilizers on leaf area index and maximum dry matter production of Aloe vera was significant. Application of manure improved nearly all growth indices in comparison with plants did not receive manure. Manure combined with chemical fertilizer had the greatest impact on the growth of Aloe vera. So that integration of manure with chemical fertilizer was led to the highest values of LAI (6. 1), CGR (0. 79 g m-2 d-1) and TDM (111. 57 g m-2). Finally, the results showed that chemical fertilizers can be replaced with combination of manure and biological fertilizers for higher and more quality of Aloe vera yield. Conclusion The results achieved in this study showed that Aloe vera had responded positively to different methods of nutrient management. Chemical fertilizer had a greater impact on the growth indices of Aloe vera than other fertilizers, furthermore when it used in combination with manure, growth was more pronounced in comparison with individual application. Although biological fertilizers used in this experiment were less effective than chemical fertilizer, all of them were improved Aloe vera properties compared to the control. Likewise, this improving properties was different in combination of biological treatments with or without manure. When manure was used, combination of biological treatments wiht manure was better than their separate application. When manure was not used, separate application was better than their integrated. Acknowledgment We are grateful to Ebrahim Farrokhi and Kohzad Sartavi for their help with the field experiments, collecting field data and providing necessary advices to carry out this work.

Introduction Most historians and archaeologist have known Iran as one of the main origins of human settlement and agriculture. Persians were the first human groups attempted to domesticate wild plants and animals. In this article we have tried to investigate the development of agriculture from ancient to nowadays with discussed and examined different historical sources. Materials and Methods To investigate the evolutionary history of Iran agriculture, according to historical documents, the era was divided to separate periods: development of settlements and beginning of agriculture in Iranian plateau, from Achaemenes to the time of Alexander conquest, Alexander's conquest, Parthian, Sassanid, the presence of Arabs in Iran, late 9 to 13 AD, Mongols invasion, Safavids, Afsharian and Qajar and agriculture development was evaluated in each period. Results and Discussion Development of agriculture in the Iranian plateau Susa was the first civilization in the Iranian plateau and at that time collection of seeds was started by human. Cereals were grown and clothing was made from fiber crops that cultivated. Domestication of wild animals and plants has been recorded to start 10 thousand years ago in this area. From Achaemenes to the time of Alexander conquest Achaemenid kings had great interest in the exploitation of natural resources, water and soil, development of commerce and agriculture commodities and growing trees and plants (Paradises) around their palaces. At this time, the Iranians not only excelled in agriculture and animal husbandry, but also in engineering dams and digging irrigation canals, and Qanat. Parthian At the time of the Parthians the number and size of villages increased and the extent of cultivated land with irrigation systems were improved. Cultivation of industrial plants such as cotton and sesame was practiced, and trade between the nomads and villagers was common. Sassanid At this period construction of roads between Iran and other nations was developed leading to increased trade, including exports and imports of agricultural products. This exchange led to the introduction and cultivation of new plants in Iran. New crops such as rice, sugar cane and indigo were imported from India. Irrigation systems were significantly improved. Presence of Arabs in Iran With the Arab conquest, many dams built by Achaemenid and Sassanid were destroyed. During the Abbasid Caliphate (750 to 1258 AD) cultivation and agricultural production was reconsidered, so farmers began new agricultural activities. Late 9 to 13 AD Irrigation methods such as using river channels, digging Qanat, wells and dams were developed. Production of citrus was common. During this period by wisdom of some politicians such as Nezamalmolk agriculture was developed significantly. Mongols invasion The negative impact of the Mongol invasion of Iran was destruction of irrigation facilities and agricultural lands, reduction of area under crop cultivation, loss of livestock and farm labors. With emergence of influential personage such as Ghazan Khan, agriculture was developed. In this course, wheat and barley and fruits trees were cultivated widely. Irrigation systems were developed. In this era Kabar dam, one of the oldest arc dams was built near Qom. Safavids Among the kings of this dynasty, Shah Abbas made many efforts in order to develop agriculture. In his time, dams and canals were constructed and farmers' rights and safety were considered. . Afsharian In this period many farmers were killed due to occurrence of frequent wars and Qanats, dams and irrigation systems were destroyed and therefore caused recession in agriculture. To transfer the water from Aras River to Mugan plain channels were constructed. Qajar era In this period agriculture was in a primitive state and there was not much knowledge on soil fertility improvement and crop production. At the time of Amirkabir industrial crops such as sugar cane were reintroduced. The first attempt in agricultural education was made in Muzaffar al-Din Shah’ s period and Falahat Muzaffari School was established. In the last century with the help of technology available, a significant achievement has been made in Iranian Agriculture. Conclusion The main part of our primogenitor efforts that are available in scientific and historical documents, is buried under huge weight of soil. It is necessary to discover these historical tremendous achievements of our primogenitor to the world. With simulation of these achievements we can revival the greatness of our ancient agriculture.

Introduction Colchicum kotschyi Boiss is a perennial, herbaceous and medicinal plant, belong to Colchicaceae family which have corm or rarely creeping stem. Colchicum species have been considered as a medicinal plant due to having divers active components in different plant parts which have been using as drug and toxin for 2000 years ago. The most important secondary metabolic compounds in plants are alkaloids. There is much evidence that the alkaloids influence on plant growth assimilating or regulatory factor. Colchicum active ingredient is colchicine. Colchicine is an alkaloid which is found in all parts of the plant such as corms, seeds, leaves and flowers and is concerned because of the pharmacological properties (anti-inflammatory) and applications in biological studies and plant breeding (induction of polyploidy). Corm weight is an important factor for producing more active component such as Colchicine. Soil fertility management is another factor that determine the quality and quantity of plant growth. However bulbous plants compared to the other plants require more attention in terms of nutritional management, because their roots are shallow and the absorption of sedentary nutrients in the soil is more difficult. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of corm weight and organic and chemical fertilizers on morphological characteristics of Colchicum kotschyi. Material and Methods In order to evaluate the effect of corm weight and soil nutrition on morphological characteristics of Colchicum kotschyi Boiss., a field experiment was conducted as factorial layout based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at Research Station, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran, in years 2012-2013 and 2013-2014. The experimental treatments were all combination of corm weight (more than 40g and less than 40g), cow manure (0 and 50 t. ha-1), urea fertilizer (0 and 50 kg. ha-1) and superphosphate fertilizer (0 and 25 kg. ha-1). Colchicum corms in the summer which the plant is in the dormancy phase, were collected from the natural area located in the Binaloud Mountains, Frizi region Razavi Khorasan province. Because of the very much variation between collected corms in terms of their weight and in order to equalize the effect of corm weight between treatments, the mother corm was considered as one of the studied factors. Before sowing, land preparation including plowing and disk operations were conducted. The corms were sown in each plot (1×1 m) 25 cm apart at the depth of 15cm. Irrigation and weed control was done if needed. With the gradual yellowing of the leaves and when the color of capsules was changed from green to brown (late June), the plants were harvested. Data analysis and drawing graphs were done by the software SAS Ver. 9. 1, MS Excel Ver. 11and the comparisons using LSD test was performed at the level of 5%. Results and Discussion The results in both years showed that at the end of the growing season, the more weighted maternal corms produced more weighted daughter corms. Corm diameter, stem diameter, stem dry weight, leaf dry weight, leaf area, whole plant weight, leaf number and cormlet number were improved in more weighted corms (p≤ 0. 05). Studies have shown that the early growth of the plant and its vital capacity are determined by the amount of food provided to the growing plant, by the maternal corm. Since the larger corms have more storage materials, the resulting plants are more grown and have thicker stems and larger leaves (larger aerial parts) and, in general, the dry weight of the whole plant was higher. In both years of experiment, all of the morphological characters were improved in 50 t. ha-1 cow manure treatment compared to control. Organic fertilizers improve soil structure, improve root development, regulate soil temperature and population of useful microorganisms, provide nutrients for the plant, and help to improve the absorption of nutrients by the plant. Therefore, the application of manure with all of the above-mentioned benefits improves vegetative growth and dry weight. In the second year, superphosphate increased corm diameter, leaf area and whole plant weight (p≤ 0. 05). The interaction effects of cow manure × corm weight on leaf area and stem diameter was significant at both years (p≤ 0. 05). Conclusion Generally, the results showed that Colchicum kotschyi Boiss. can respond to optimum levels of the fertilizers. Cow manure in combination with superphosphate can improve morphological characters in the field conditions.

Introduction Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a well-known and accurate method for comparison of environmental impacts of human activities including different agricultural management systems. Since agricultural activities are known as an important source of environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emission, LCA have been extensively applied for several tree and crop species around the country. However, these researches are generally conducted at field or district scales and due to variation in agronomic practices and input levels, the results cannot extended to regional or national level. In this paper using spatial upscaling method the results of LCA for wheat production systems with different level of inputs were extended to province and the results were subjected to statistical classification methods for comparison of impacts between provinces. Materials and Methods In this research the results of LCA for low, medium and high input wheat production systems of the country were upscaled to 14 provinces, details on LCA analysis of these systems is provided. For each province contribution of three management systems in cultivated area and wheat yield were extracted from official databases. Using these data the intensity of seven impact groups available from LCA were estimated for each province by linear upscaling method as described. Standardized values of seven impact categories over 14 provinces were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) to compare provinces for overall impacts and separately for each impact category. In addition a normalized environmental index which integrates all impacts in a single index was calculated for direct comparison between provinces. Results and Discussion Results indicated that studied provinces had wide range of land use efficiency. Khozestan province with 18% of country wheat production had the lowest land use efficiency where 4271 m2 land is needed per ton wheat grain while it was the lowest (2079 m2) in Tehran. The highest per hectare global warming potential and ecotoxicity was obtained for Tehran province where contribution of high input systems in total cultivated area was at the maximum. However, per ton grain Hamadan and Khozestan provinces had respectively, the lowest and the highest global warming potential. Classification with principal component analysis (PCA) showed that difference between provinces in addition to yield, was highly related to the percentage distribution of low, medium and high input systems in total cultivated area. Comparison of provinces with a normalized environmental index showing the integrated effects of seven impact groups confirmed the results of PCA. Based on the results, taking into account all impact categories, production of one ton wheat grain in Hamadan had the lowest environmental impact between 14 provinces and Khozestan showed the highest impacts for production of the same amount of grain yield. In wheat production systems in Iran with high input management, increasing yield level above 4 t ha-1 may result to severe per hectare environmental impacts which cannot be compensated for by yield increment. Conclusion It is concluded that at current level of resource use efficiency in wheat production systems of the country, increasing wheat yield through intensification is not a reliable approach and will be led to strict environmental consequences.

Introduction Vermicompost tea can be extracted under aerated or non-aerated (passive) conditions. This water extractable compound includes: Active microorganisms, primarily Bacteria, Fungi and some Protozoa, Mineral nutrients, Organic acids and other microbial by-products. Considerable variability in the efficacy of compost tea to promote plant growth has been reported in many experiments. The results suggest that the reasons for the beneficial effects of the compound are complex and depend on many factors, including plant species, compost quality, extraction method, and growing conditions. They may have direct and indirect effects on plant growth and development. The indirect effects of humic compounds on soil fertility include: (i) Increase in the soil microbial population including beneficial microorganisms, (ii) Improved soil structure and (iii) Increase in the cation exchange capacity and the pH buffering capacity of the soil. Directly, humic acid compounds may have various biochemical effects either at cell wall and membrane level or in the cytoplasm, including increased photosynthesis and respiration rates in plants, enhanced protein synthesis and hormone-like activities in plants. Satureja khuzistanica Jamzad is an endemic species of the genus Satureja in Iran. It is a valuable medicinal plant because of high concentration of Rosmarinic Acid in the extract. This plant also has other unique growth properties such as high growth under calcareous and poor soils of arid region. Materials and Methods In order to study the effects of different levels of humic acid and vermicompost tea on growth, yield, morphological and phytochemical characters of Satureja khuzistanica, an experiment with factorial arrangement based on randomized complete block design with three replications was conducted in 2013. Factors included of three levels of humic acid (1. 5, 2. 5 and 3. 5 liter per ha. ) and vermicompost tea in concentrations of 5% (5: 1, water: vermicompost) 10% and 20% which were sprayed on aerial parts of the plants. Parameters like plant height, plant crown, leaf length, leaf width, shoot dry weight, leaf dry weight, oil content, essential oil yield, content of phenolic and flavonoids compounds were studied in this study to evaluate the effects of the treatments on Satureja Khuzistanica. Results and Discussion The results showed that treatments of 3. 5 l. ha-1 humic acid + 20% vermicompost tea had the maximum dry weight (460 g. m-2), leaf dry weight (195. 33 g. m-2) and essential oil yield (6. 38 g. m-2). The highest essential oil percentage (3. 44%) was obtained in the treatment of 1. 5 l. ha-1 humic acid + 20% vermicompost tea. The maximum content of phenolic and flavonoids compounds were observed in treatments of 2. 5 l. ha-1 humic acid + 5% vermicompost tea (46. 56 μ g gallic acid /mg dry extract) and 3. 5 l. ha-1 humic acid + 5% vermicompost tea (749. 13 μ g routin /mg dry extract), respectively. The interactions of the humic acid and vermicompost tea effects on plant height, plant crown, leaf length and leaf width were not significant in both years. Conclusion Results of this experiment showed that mixed application of humic acid and extract of vermicompost (vermicompost tea) has more positive effects on growth and yield parameters of this plant rather than sole application. Results of Azza et al, (2010) showed that the extract of vermicompost can increase yield, oil content and essential oil yield in Levisticum officinalis. Appropriate amounts of humic acid and vermicompost extract can increase soil organic matter by improving the soil microbial activity and nutrient availability, and this will result in increasing the rate of photosynthesis and plant dry matter so this is a way to ultimately improve the yield, leaf dry weight and the essential oil yield of Satureja khuzistanica. Among the treatments, application of 3. 5 l. ha-1 humic acid + 20% of vermicompost tea, had the best effects on growth and yield. Acknowledgements Hereby we appreciate Iran National Science Foundation (Science Deputy of Presidency) for financial support of this project (No. 85125. 61) and Khoraman and FTSS companies which support this project and Mr. Ali Karimi (graduated student of medicinal plants, Medicinal Plants and Drugs Research Institute of Shahid Beheshti University) who cooperate us in this research.

Introduction The population of developing countries is dramatically increasing, thus acute food supply challenges are threatening them in case of quality and quantity. One of the successful strategies for improving agricultural production and food supply is to preserve, maintain, and enrich the soil. Iran has an arid and semi-arid climate with an average rainfall of 240 mm per year, so improving water use efficiency and reducing the effects of water stress can help farmers increase their agricultural products. Another serious problem of Iranian agricultural system is the widespread application of chemical fertilizers in the recent decades, which has caused soil degradation and environmental pollution. Therefore, by addressing these two concerns, this research was to evaluate the possibility of reducing the unpleasant effects of water stress on sunflower using organic fertilizers of Vermicompost and Mineral Zeolite (Clinoptilolite). Materials and Methods This study was conducted at the agricultural research farm of Tarbiat Modares University in Tehran, Iran (lattitude: 35° 44´ N and longitude: 51° 10´ E) during the growing season of 2010 to 2011. The factorial arrangement was done on Randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The main-plot factors were different nutritional systems, such as, F1(0% vermicompost + 100% chemical (urea)+ 175% zeolite), F2 (25% vermicompost + 75% chemical (urea) + 150% zeolite), F3(50% vermicompost + 50% chemical (urea) + 125% zeolite), F4(75% vermicompost + 25% chemical + 100% zeolite); and sub-plot factors were deficit irrigation at three levels including control treatment (S1): 50% moisture depletion/moisture content (or, 50% FC), (S2): 60% moisture content (or, 40% FC) and (S3): 70% moisture content (or, 30% FC). All the experimental plots were irrigated equally until the R4 phase. Irrigation regimes was set after R4 based on soil moisture reduction measured with a TDR device models trime_FM, and for more accurate results, a gravimetric soil moisture was used too. Chlorophyll extraction was performed by Arnon's (1949) standard method and was read with a spectrophotometer model (GBC-Cintra 6-Australia), at wavelengths of 663 and 645 nm. The proline content was extracted with Bates' (1973) method and was read with a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 520 nm. The protein content was measured using the standard Kjeldahl (1883) method. Also, seed oil content was measured using Soxhlet (Model No SCMS-F100-6H), and oil yield was calculated by multiplying the seed oil content in grain yield. Data were recorded in Microsoft Excel ver. 2010 and statistical analysis was done with SAS ver. 9. 1 software. Means compared using LSD at the 1% probability level. Results and Discussion ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) results showed that the effect of stress/deficit irrigation, nutritional systems and their interactions were significant (P<0. 01) on grain yield, thousand grain weight, number of seeds per head, head diameter, biological yield, oil content, oil yield and proline content. Also the simple effects of both water stress and fertilizers application were significant on harvest index, chlorophyll a and total chlorophyll content. This is while in Chlorophyll b only the effect of water stress was significant (Table 5). Drought stress reduced yield, yield components, oil percentage, oil yield, chlorophyll a and b and total chlorophyll; but increased proline and percentage of protein. The F4 fertilizer treatment had the highest grain yield, thousand grain weight, head diameter, number of seeds per head, oil content and oil yield in stress conditions (Table 6). Conclusion Since the highest yield, yield components, oil content and oil yield under water stress treatments (S2 and S3) were observed in the F4 nutritional treatment, it is therefore suggested that a combination of organic fertilizers (vermicompost), chemical fertilizer (urea) and mineral zeolite (clinoptilolite) can supply the required nitrogen for sunflower and reduce the undesirable effects of water stress. Based on the recent water crisis in Iran, the consumption of fertilizers, particularly nitrate fertilizers that cause environmental pollution and degradation, should be substituted with ecological friendly and cost effective nutritional mixtures which meanwhile meet the plant's needs. The nutritional composition suggested in this research can be considered in this way.

Introduction Oil as a major source of food and energy has an important role in human nutrition. A great deal of Oil produced in Iran is originated in vegetable Oils. Oil-producing crops such as Canola play a significant role in oil production industry, and as a sole source of saturated fatty acids, has an important role in public health. . Rapeseed (Brassica napus), also known as oilseed rape and Canola, is a bright yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae, and is grown for the production of edible vegetable oils, biodiesel and animal feed, globally. The harvested area of Canola in Iran has had an increasing trend in the recent years and requires more agronomic researches to achieve the optimum yield of the oil-seed crop and meet the oil demands via increasing its oil yield and production. Optimum plant density per unit area is an important agronomic factor, which maximizes plant access to environmental growth sources during the growing season. This is an essential factor, which contributes to maximum plant yield. This factor varies in terms of region and depends on plant variety. Proper weed control and optimal weed management are another important factors in yield improvement. Weeds damage products both quantitatively and qualitatively. Qualitative damage reduces product's quality, nutritional value and toxicity (if weeds mix with the product excessively). Quantitative damage slightly reduces production per unit area. Laansite et al. (2008) reported that grain yield was significantly affected by increased plant density in Canola. They also showed that increased plant density reduced the number of tributaries per plant. The number of pods per unit area was the most important indicator that increased as plant density increased. The goal of this study is to investigate different agronomic and physiologic characteristics of Canola under different density and weed management levels in Zabol, Iran. Materials and Methods The study is conducted in Dawlat Abad village located in south of Zabol (61° 29 E and 31° 2 N and 487 m above sea level) in 2012-2013 growing season. Two levels of weed managements as the main-plot factors and four levels of plant density as the sub-plot factors was performed based on a RCBD as split plot arrangement. The treatments were applied as: W1: weed control and W2: no weed control; D1: 50 plants per square meter, D2: 75 plants per square meter, D3: 100 plants per square meter and D4: 125 plants per square. In order to evaluate the effects of the treatments on the Canola, some agronomic indices like: plant height, number of tributaries per plant, number of pods per plant, thousand grain weights, dry matter yield, grain yield, weed biomass, oil content and yield, were measured at the end of the experiment. Results and Discussion The results of this research showed that weed control had a significant effect on grain yield and oil yield of Canola. In addition, the density of 75 plants per square meter not only improved yield components, but also significantly increased grain yield and oil yield (oil content). However, the lowest weed biomass and the highest dry forage of canola were obtained at a density of 125 plants per square meter. This result recommended that properly weed control and cultivating 75 plants per square meter of canola can be the optimum treatment to obtain the highest grain yield and oil content in Zabol region. This is while densities with more than 75 plants per m2 are proper to control weeds and produce forage in Canola. Conclusion Our result showed that increasing plant density increased canola yield and yield components and resulted in better weed control, allowing for the use of reduced herbicide rates in way to reach sustainable agriculture. In fact, the result revealed that manipulating plant density in canola production has potential to affect weeding and finally these two methods improved quantitative and qualitative characteristics of canola.

Introduction Vegetable oils such as safflower oil, due to high amounts of unsaturated fatty acids, play an important role in the fat balance of human diet and can reduce blood cholesterol level. Drought as the most important factor controlling the performance of the products, on a variety of factors that affect plant growth and yield (Ghamarnia and Sepehri, 2010). Although safflower is a drought resistant plant, but drought has significant effects on its duration of phenological stages, thus cause a significant reduction in yield, yield components, growth and some morphological traits such as plant height and distance to the first bifurcation branches from soil surface (Khoshnam et al. 2012). When the distance between plants in the row is low, vacancies are not green. Low density, especially in row plant spacing is not desirable. This experiment aims at identifying the critical stages of water and specifies the appropriate number of plants in conditions of stress and lack of tension in the area as well. Material and Methods In order to evaluate the effect of deficit irrigation and density on growth, seed yield and some morphological traits of a local variety of autumn safflower, an experiment was conducted with a spilt plot arrangement based on randomized complete block design with four replications at Research farm of Faculty of Agriculture, Birjand University in 2013-2014. Irrigation levels (complete irrigation, irrigation until flowering and irrigation until heading-bud stage) and plant density (20, 30, 40 and 50 plant per m2) allocated randomly in main plots and subplots, respectively. Phonological aspects (number of days to emergence, stemming, heading bud, 50% flowering and physiological maturity) were recorded. The terms consisted of plant height, distance to the first bifurcation branches from soil surface and number of primary and secondary branches and seed yield. SAS ver. 9. 1 statistical software was performed to measure the results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means were compared with LSD test in 5% probability level. Results and Discussion Results showed a significant reduction in plant growth period, plant height, distance to the first bifurcation branches from soil surface and number of primary and secondary branches in the irrigation until heading-bud treatment. The yield loss in this treatment was caused by early flowering and decrease in flowering period, seed filling period, maturity stage and yield components. It seems that the heading-bud stage is the most critical stage of the crop growing under water deficit conditions. Since all of the measured parameters had a positive correlation with seed yield, so a reduction of seed yield under the "irrigation until heading-bud treatment" is obvious. By increasing the plant density, plant height and distance to the first bifurcation branches from soil surface was increased but number of days until maturity and number of primary and secondary branches was reduced. In addition, the highest seed yield was obtained from full irrigation treatment with density of 40 plants per m2. In all plant densities, lowest seed yield was observed in the "irrigation until heading-bud" treatment. As it seems that this growth stage is the most susceptible stage of the crop to limited water, optimum irrigation in this stage may case a significant increase in seed yield. Conclusion According to the results of this experiment in order to achieve the maximum yield of safflower in Birjand region, full irrigation and density of 40 plants. m-2 is suggested. Supplementary irrigation during heading-bud stage is necessary to prevent a sharp drop in seed yield. The density of 40 plants. m-2 of safflower can cover the canopy faster and due to a reduction in soil evaporation, it can postpone the drought stress to the end of the growing season. This density, also with increasing the growing season, increasing the plant height and decreasing the number of low or non-fertile branches, results in better plant growth and thus helps to produce more seeds.

Introduction Weeds are one of the most important factors in reducing crop yield. Excessive use of herbicides for weed control because of the environmental pollution and ecological damaging effects does not have the necessary sustainability. One of the strategies to reduce the herbicides use in agriculture is use of intercropping systems with cover crops. Additive intercropping of different crop together through create an intense competition microecosystem, provided the conditions that weeds damage would be minimized in these situations. This study was conducted to evaluate the quantitative usefulness of sweet corn-mungbean intercropping and its effect on weed control. Materials and Methods The experiment was conducted as factorial base on randomized complete block design with three replications. The first factor consisted of 6 levels of different cultivation systems (sweet corn and mungbean monoculture, intercropping of 20, 40, 60 and 80 percent of net density mungbeans with sweet corn) and the second factor was two levels of control and lack of weed control. Each plot had a length of 6 meters, including 4 rows by 60 cm distance. In monocultures, sweet corn (8. 3 plant m-2 density) with 20 cm plant spacing and mungbean (8. 23 plantm-2 density) with 7 cm plant spacing were planted. In intercropping treatments also sweet corn and mungbean were planted on both sides of the heap that plant spacing for sweet corn was 20 cm and for mungbean base on additive intercropping treatment were 8. 7, 11. 6, 17. 5 and 35. 8 cm respectively for creation of 80, 60, 40 and 20 percent of mungbean optimal density. Results and Discussion Weed competition reduced 1000 seed weight, seed number per row and canned grain yield of sweet corn by 13. 8, 24 and 42. 6 percent respectively. The highest (301. 7 g) and lowest (281. 8 g) of 1000 seed weight of sweet corn were related to intercropping of 20 and 80% optimal mungbean density with sweet corn, respectively. The highest (24. 3) and lowest (20. 6) of seed number per row of sweet corn were obtained respectively in intercropping of 40 and 80% optimal mungbean density with sweet corn. Compared to monoculture treatment the only intercropping treatments of 40 and 60% mungbean + sweet corn increased the canned grain yield of sweet corn significantly. Weeds competition and cultivation system had significant effect on 1000 seed weight, pod number per plant, seed number per pod, grain yield, biological yield and harvest index of mungbean. Treatments of 60% mungbean + sweet corn intercropping and mungbean monoculture had the highest (40. 8 g) and lowest (37. 7 g) 1000 seed weight of mungbean respectively. Intercropping of sweet corn + 20, 40 and 60% mungbean treatments increased number of pods per mungbean plant compared to pure culture significantly. In all of the intercropping treatments relative to mungbean monoculture the seed number per pod was increased. In the absence of weeds, intercropping of sweet corn + 80% mungbean and in the presence of weeds, intercropping of sweet corn + 60% and 80% mungbean had the similar mungbean grain yield (no significant difference) with the mungbean monoculture. Weed competition decreased the 1000 seed weight, pods number per plant and seed number per pod of mungbean about 13, 27 and 15 percent respectively. The highest weed dry weight (802. 4 gr m-2) was observed in the pure culture of mungbean without non-significant differences with the sweet corn monoculture. The lowest weed dry weight (465. 9 gr m-2) was observed in the intercropping treatment of sweet corn + 40% mungbean without non-significant differences with other intercropping treatments. In all of the intercropping treatments the land equivalent ratio was greater than one (LER≥ 1) and ranged from 1. 41to 1. 89. Conclusions Based on the results of this experiment, additive intercropping sweet corn and mungbean in all of additive mungbean levels had the higher usefulness than monoculture of these species and in all of the intercropping treatments land equivalent ratio was more than one (LER≥ 1). The best additive intercropping treatment was sweet corn + 40% mungbean.

Introduction Common millet (Panicum miliaceum L. ) is a cereal plant cultivated for its grain, mostly in semi-arid regions of Iran. It is a warm-season and C4 grass with higher water use efficiency than C3 plants, short growing season, low moisture requirement, relatively high drought resistance and is capable of producing food or feed where other grain crops would fail. Water resources deficit and drought stress is becoming a major threat to plant productivity loss in agricultural systems therefore optimum use of limited water resources and seasonal scattered rainfall and water use efficiency is necessary. Drought stress leads to lower growth, yield and yield components in pearl millet. Super absorbent polymers have a great importance for their role in increase of absorption capacity and saving water in the soil and to combat water shortage conditions. The water holding capacity of super absorbent polymers helps to keep plants from sitting in water logged soil in times of excess moisture. Then, as moisture is needed, super absorbent polymers release moisture back into the root zone helping to maintain consistent soil moisture. Positive impact of super absorbent polymers on growth and yield of soybean and corn under water limited condition have been reported. The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of different levels of water deficit and super absorbent polymers on morphological and physiological characteristics of millet ecotypes. Materials and Methods The experiment was carried out during spring and summer of 2013 in Faculty of agriculture research field of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman (56º , 58'E; 30º , 15'N and 1754 m elevation). Soil type was a Sandy-loam, with pH 7. 6 and mean annual precipitation of 150 mm. The experiment was carried out in a split plot arrangement based on RCBD design with three replications. Irrigation treatments included three levels: normal irrigation, drought stress with super absorbent application and drought stress were applied in main plots and Zahedan, Kahnooj, Ghale-ganj, Golbaf, p25 line and Pishahang Ecotypes as plant material were sown in sub plots. Irrigation intervals were conducted based on 50 and 100 mm evaporation from class A pan evaporation. Plants were harvested at the end of the growing season to determination of plant height, biological and grain yield. Ion leakage percent were measured based on method proposed by Zheng et al. (2008). Statistical analysis was done by MSTAT-C, Excel and SAS softwares and means were compared by Duncan’ s multiple range test at 5% of probability level. Results and Discussion The results showed that significantly increased were observed in stem length, grain and biological yield in super absorbent polymer application in comparison with the non-application in stress conditions. Stern et al. (1992) reported that the use of super absorbent polymers increased dry matter in wheat. The use of super absorbent decreased ion leakage that was consistent with the results of Harvey (2002). Pishahang cultivar had the higher biological yield in stress condition with super absorbent application compared to the other ecotypes of millet. Kahnooj ecotype in stem length and Ghale-ganj in grain yield significantly higher than the others. Kahnooj ecotype had the lower ionic leakage than the others. The results of this research revealed that Golbaf ecotype in drought stress and Ghale-ganj ecotype in drought by applying super absorbent conditions had significant performance. Application of super absorbent polymer increased 55. 3% in grain yield compared to the non-application under drought stress. Stoker (1960) reported that drought stress leaded to increase in ionic leakage and reduced plant height and create short plants. Application of super absorbent polymers to reduce the devastating effects of drought on soybean and corn have been reported. Conclusion The super absorbent polymer increased grain yield compared to normal irrigation which indicating very positive and direct effect of this polymer in maintaining soil moisture nearby the plant roots and reducing the adverse effects of drought stress as well as increasing grain yield in millet ecotypes, therefore could be helpful materials for more utilization of plants potential in conditions and environments with water limitation.

Introduction Despite the notable application of chemical drugs, medicinal plants and drugs that extracted from them widely has been used, so that in some countries they are integral components of remedy Basil (Ocimum basilicum L. ) is one of the major essential oils producing species. Although the applications of different sources of manures have been shown the significant effects on yield and the quality of agricultural products, but overusing of chemical fertilizers in crop production resulted in numerous problems such as contamination of groundwater, nitrate accumulation and heavy metal toxicity. In many cases, the application of expensive chemical fertilizers causes environmental pollution and ecological damages that lead to the increase in cost of production. Materials and Methods In order to evaluate the effect of organic and chemical fertilizers on growth and performance of green basil, an experiment was conducted, is based on randomized complete block design with eight treatments and three replications in the research farm of Agricultural College, Shahrekord University in 2014. Treatments were included NP (N + P), NPS (N + P + S), NPM (N + P + micronutrients), NPSM (N + P + S + micronutrients), CMp (cattle manure based on phosphorus), CMn (cattle manure based on the nitrogen), BLp (broiler litter based on phosphorus) and BLn (broiler litter based on the nitrogen), respectively. Plant height, number of leaves per plant, leaf area index, fresh yield, stem fresh weight, leaf fresh weight, leaf dry weight, stem dry weight, aboveground dry weight were measured. All data were analyzed with SAS software. Significant differences between individual means were determined using Fisher’ s protected least significant difference (LSD) test (P≤ 0. 05). Results and Discussion The results showed that the effect of different sources of fertilizer on plant height, number of leaves per plant, leaf area index, fresh yield, stem fresh weight, leaf fresh weight, leaf dry weight, stems dry weight, aboveground dry weight were significant at 1% probability. The greatest amount of above mentioned traits were obtained from the second harvest of basil. The highest leaf area index was 5. 7 which was two times more than leaf area index in the first harvest. The highest fresh weight (14576 kg. ha-1) was achieved with broiler litter in the second harvest. In general, BLn treatment produced the highest yield, stem fresh weight and leaf fresh weight in the first harvest (10111, 372 and 639 kg. ha-1, respectively) and second harvest (14577, 535 and 992 kg. ha-1, respectively). It seems that organic manures included much of mineral nutrient required for plant growth and richness with macro elements and less than micro elements can improve nutritional status of soil. Similar results for positive effect of organic manures specially poultry manure on enhancement of basil height, increase in dry weight of chamomile, augmentation in dry weight of lemon balm and enhancement in dry weight of aerial parts of pepper with application of vermicompost has been reported. In another experiment for determination of sorghum bicolor yield reported that application of 5-15 ton per hectare poultry manure can improve 5 times in compared to control treatment. Also the experiment was conducted to determine the cotton yield results showed that poultry manure at the rate of 20 tons per hectare produced the highest cotton yield. Conclusion The positive effects of broiler litter in basil plant production indicated that soil amendment with broiler litter based on the nitrogen can be created suitable conditions for appropriate growth and production of basil and its effect also more than the complete chemical nutrition of plant. Acknowledgments We wish to thank, Shahrekord University, Iran for the financial support of the project.

Introduction The controversy about sustainable agriculture has been extended to consider the impact of agricultural production. Population growth has increased the need for food, water, and renewable energy resources, which requires development of new knowledge about and technology for production systems using the sustainable development frameworks. As a consequence of agricultural reliance on natural resources and processes, a complicated relationship exists between agriculture and the environment. Agricultural activities can be both advantageous and disadvantageous for the environment. Agricultural activities have grown quickly over recent decades in Iran; their environmental impacts have also escalated. Major environmental issues in Iran include water shortages, nitrate leaching into ground water, soil erosion, and the release of pesticides and P-based fertilizers into water resources. Since there is a legal gap in assessing the environmental impact of agricultural activities in Iran; so little attention has been paid to reducing environmental emissions and use of resources of the agricultural products. Standard procedures should be used to assess agricultural activity to introduce environmentally-friendly practices and products. Crops production is a system with high environmental impacts. Different tools are available for assessment of the environmental impact of agricultural products. The most comprehensive of these is life cycle assessment (LCA). The present study used LCA to evaluate the materials used, energy consumption, and related environmental emissions from cradle to farm gate for soybean (Glycine max), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L. ), and canola (Brassica napus L. ) crops in Ardabil province of Iran. Materials and Methods The basic guidelines for administering an LCA delineated in ISO standards 14040 and 14044 were observed in this research. LCA is an internationally standardized holistic assessment framework and is widely used to identify potential environmental emissions and resources throughout a product's lifecycle, particularly in the agro-food sector. Literature on LCA has demonstrated potential applications of LCA in agriculture. All environmental impacts were analyzed using Simapro v 8. 0. 1 software. The goal of the current analysis was to examine the environmental performance of conventional cropping practices of oilseed crops at the local level in Iran. The scope of the present research was limited to oilseed production system using all inputs and outputs of agricultural materials, energy, and water from cradle to farm gate in Ardabil. All materials, emissions, and water and energy consumption measured per 1 ton of a crop at 13% humidity are denoted as a FU. A system boundary covers the entire production system for soybean, sunflower, and canola. The inventory data was collected based on the commercial production of each crop. The goal of inventory questionnaire was to evaluate type of machinery, inputs and outputs and irrigation. Also, data collection involved face-to-face interview with farmers. The impact categories investigated in this research were eutrophication, acidification, global warming potential, and photochemical oxidation. In addition, the impacts of water dependence and land use were examined. Results and Discussion Only the classification and characterization stages of the LCA were considered in this research. The results showed that sunflower demonstrated a higher environmental load in five of the six categories because of its lower seed yield and higher water and energy demands. The results indicate that production of 1 ton of soybean and canola requires 370 and 471 m2 of land, respectively. Production of same quantity of sunflower required 426 m2 of land. Sunflower required 1. 59 and 1. 25 times more water than the canola and soybean respectively, to produce the same quantity of oilseed. It was found that the effects of these three crops comes generally from manufactured fertilizer, manure, diesel combustion, agricultural practices, and electricity for irrigation. Conclusion Generally, it can be said that the indirect effects associated with these inputs are related to producing and processing, which had higher impacts than those of the direct effects.

Introduction In order to achieve healthy food production, application of ecological inputs such as organic and biological fertilizers is inevitable. Organic fertilizers are fertilizer compounds that contain one or more kinds of organic matter. They can improve the soil ability to hold water and nutrients. Humic substances (HS) are natural organic compounds comprising from 50% to 90% of the organic matter of peat, lignites, sapropels, as well as non-living organic of soil and water ecosystems. According to the classical definition, HS are "a general category of naturally occurring heterogeneous organic substances that can generally be characterized as being yellow to black in color, of high molecular weight and refractory". They are a mixture of complex organic compounds that are usually separated into three fractions based on aqueous solubility: humic acids (HA), the fraction of HS that is not soluble in water under acidic conditions (pH < 2) but is soluble at higher pH values; fulvic acids (FA), the fraction of HS that is soluble in water under all pH conditions; humins, the fraction of HS that is not soluble in water at any pH value. HS cannot be described by unique, chemically defined molecular structures. Production of drought tolerant wheat varieties which can produce acceptable yield with minimum irrigation requirement has special significance in breeding programs. Use of humic acids as soil amendments and for plants nutrition purposes enhances plants tolerance to the abiotic stresses specially drought stress. Humic acid is an eco-friendly fertilizer that improves the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. This nutritional source has hormonal compounds and exerts a positive effect on elements absorption, quality and yield of plants. The aim of this research was to determine the effects of humic acid on quantity and quality of bread wheat against end drought stress conditions. Materials and Methods In this study, in order to determine the effect of potassium humate on wheat tolerance to late season drought and also quantity and quality of its grain yield, an experiment was carried out on six selected wheat genotypes including Gascogne, Sabalan, 4057, Ruzi-84, Gobustan and Saratovskaya-29. The experiment was carried out as split plot factorial based on completely randomized block design with three replications in research farm of Islamic Azad University, Ardabil branch, Iran during 2008-2009 growing season. Main plot include stress levels (irrigation cut at anthesis stage and non-stress) and potassium humate (humate application), and sub plot included as genotypes. Treatment composition of non-stress, non humate and Gascogne wheat was considered as a control treatment. Treatments were stress levels (stress, non-stress); humate levels (humate, non-humate) and genotypes. Applied liquid humic fertilizer (potassium humate) was derived from peat. Humic treatments were done at several times (spraying on seeds after planting, foliage spraying at tillering, stem elongation and grain filling stages). Grain yield, biological yield and protein content of grains were recorded. After grain milling by Laboratory Mill-3100, protein content of flour measured by Inframatic-8600. Data analysis was done by using SAS software and means were compared by least significant difference test (LSD). Results and Discussion Potassium humate reduced stress intensity by 23% and also increased biological and economic yield in drought conditions. In late season drought conditions potassium humate increased the yield from 2. 8 to 3. 6 tons per hectare (around 26%). Humate increased seed yield of the varieties Gascogne (1. 8 tons per hectare), Gobustan, Saratovskaya-29 and Sabalan (0. 54 to 0. 67 tons per hectare) and Ruzi-84 (0. 27 tons per hectare). Seed protein content in Saratovskaya-29 was highest in both humate application conditions and without it, but the yield was low. The variety Sabalan had the highest grain yield and average protein content. The 4057 genotype and Sabalan had the highest grain yield in both stress and no-stress conditions. Conclusion Generally, the findings of this investigation showed that potassium humate as a natural preparation can improve quality and quantity of produced wheat grains against end seasonal drought condition.

Introduction The growing world population and increased need for food security, leading to great developments in the is agriculture and promoted. fertilizers substance the element or elements needed by plants directly into the soil and the optimum growth and maximum product quality result. fertilizer management is an important process because the right combination of fertilizer for agricultural production is cause production food with minimal losses. Choice a proper fertilizer management to programs, the environment, to prevent pollution of land and water and air depends. to excursion elements play a fundamental role in ecosystem functioning and rotating elements, while energya track, just the non-cyclical flows, that humanthe end of the food chain remains so because healthy soil and plant healthy, healthy plants and will provide human health. Materials and Methods The study, to evaluate the elements in wheat under different fertilizer systems, In format of randomized complete block design with three replications, during the crop Year 2013-2014, the Agricultural Research Station, University of Zabol (Chahnymh) that 35 kilometers is Zabol was conducted. In terms of geographical location of 61 degrees and 41 minutes east longitude and 30 degrees, 54 minutes north latitude and altitude of 480 meter of sea level. The weather it has cold winters and dry, and hot summers and dry, that according to category coupons and amberger ingredient weather warm and dry is considered. treatments contains: T1: control (no fertilizer), T2: cow manure, T3: vermi compost fertilizer, T4: chemical fertilizer, T5: vermicompost+ nitroxin fertilizer, T6: cow manure and nitroxin fertilizer, T7: cow manure and chemical fertilizer. direction calculation the analysis of statistical data obtained at first to software excel transmit and after assurance the of normality to be data, the results with using the of statistical software SAS, version 9. 1, and variance analysis, the by means test duncan, at the level 5 percent, were compared. Results and Discussion The results showed that different fertilizer systems on the all morphological characteristics of wheat, with the exception the weight of one thousand seeds surface (P≤ 0/01) was significant. So that chemical fertilizers, cause the increased 16. 20 percent, plant height and consolidated fertilizers cause Increased 11. 60 percent the weight one thousand seeds compared was the control treatment. The highest and lowest grain yield with values the highest and lowest grain yield with values 3440 and 1835 kg. h-1, respectively belong to treatments, system blended manure and chemical fertilizers, and treatment control. concentration of grain elements on the surface (P≤ 0/01), with the exception of Mg, that at use of different nutritional systems at one surface, was significant. So that chemical fertilizers, N and P, respectively 48. 78 and 139 Percent and cow manure and chemical fertilizer the potassium seed 30. 76 percent, cow manure, Fe, Na and Zn, respectively 58. 82, 40. 48, 7. 49 has increased compared to control. chemical fertilizers Ca to the 16. 10 percent compared to control, reduce. thus improving plant nutrition through optimal use of fertilizers blended, bio, organic, quality and quantity in addition to increasing of agricultural products, the human nutritional status, the lack of elements compensate and balance nutrient elements cause improve body function, and reduce the need to supplement. Conclusion Chemical fertilizers combined with farmyard manure, greatest impact on increasing yield and its components have. The results imply comparative advantage cow manure and chemical fertilizer that is an integrated fertilizer, and of opinion increase characteristics morphological and increase yield and its components superior to chemical fertilizers have the is advantage. Acknowledgements This is required by the respected institute for agricultural chahnymh personnel affiliated with the university of Zabol in the study have cooperated appreciate.

Introduction Nowadays there is a global attention to medicinal plants and their role in the production of drugs with no side effects. Our country with climate variety also has important role in production of these plants in the world. Formulate and implement effective programs in line with the resuscitation conservation and efficient utilization of medicinal plants by identifying their characteristics and ecological needs is possible. Henna with the scientific name of Lawsonia inermis L. is a perennial plant having high value in terms of medicinal properties and industrial application. The dye which is derived from green leaves of henna is used for decorating the body with intricate designs and the principle coloring matter is lawsone, 2-hydroxy-1, 4-naphthoqunone. Literature show henna possess antibacterial and anti-immunomodulatory activities along with other properties. The natural constituents of henna are essential oils, 1, 4-naphthoquinone, tannins, gallic acid, flavonoids, lipids, sugars, triacontyltridecanoate, mannitol, xanthones, coumarins (5-alkyloxy 7-hydroxycoumarin), 2-3% resins, 5-10% tannic ingredients and up to 2% lawsone (2-hydroxy-1, 4-naphthoquinone). A major portion of lawsone is glycosidic bound, which is cleaved by enzymatic hydrolysis of the glycosidichennosids and auto oxidation of aglucons. Reports of various studies show that no experiment have been done on the eco-physiological properties of henna in Iran. Kerman province with the first position in Hana production has a special importance in this regard. Materials and Methods This study was carried out in Kerman province in 2015. In this survey climatic characteristics of cultivated area, physico-chemical analysis of soil, performance data, phenological stages and also information on irrigation were investigated. Finally, the relationship between climatic-management characteristics and performance was studied through multiple regressions. Results and Discussion The results showed that the henna in Kerman province is distributed in Shahdad, Roodbar, Bam and Kahnooj. The area under cultivation in these regions ranged from a minimum of 3 hectares with a yield average of 1. 4 t. ha-1 in Shahdad and a maximum of 7500 hectares with a yield average of 6. 5 t. ha-1 in the Roodbar. The results of this study showed that over 93% of henna cultivation area in Kerman province belongs to Roodbar. The highest and lowest of water use efficiency were belonged to Roodbar (0. 46) and Shahdad (0. 17) respectively. The total growth period, on average, varied between 190 to 220 days in the studied areas. Climatic zoning of habitat areas were dry climate according to Domarten dryness index. The mean annual precipitation of habitats were 7. 72 mm, 33. 6% relative humidity, 632 m altitude and the mean temperature was 26. 5 ° C. Soil of habitats largely had sandy-loam texture with an pH of 8. 19, 3. 84 dS/m electrical conductivity and 0. 06-0. 12% organic matter. The results of regression analysis showed that nitrogen, rainfall and relative humidity are the most important soil and climate characteristics that affect henna performance, respectively. Availability of nitrogen has a great importance because of their role in the production of proteins, nucleic acids and chlorophyll synthesis. Rainfall is one of the most important climatic factors that can be more effective in yield production through the influence of moisture and soil temperature. Conclusion Henna is a cold-sensitive species while able to growth in dry climates with an annual precipitation of less than 100 mm. According to recent studies the plant cultivation area in previous years has been more than now. Some problems such as water shortages, agricultural economic problems and etc. have been effective in reducing the cultivation area. In general, due to the importance of medicinal plants, it is necessary to study the various ecophysiological aspects of henna, providing a solution for optimized management and consequently extending area under cultivation in the local areas of the country.

Introduction Cheap and plentiful fossil energy causes human’ s life welfare to improve and increase food production, but today, major problems have been created in fossil fuels. These problems include: scarcity of fossil fuels for future generations, increase in energy prices, and the most importantly, greenhouse gas emissions (such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane) from the use of fossil fuels to the atmosphere. Energy productivity is one of the most important factors for sustainable agriculture. The use of fossil fuels and chemical fertilizers are threatening the environment. The comparing energy consumption by crops is one of the ways to prioritize various agronomic productions in each area. Materials and Methods To conduct this study, two crops (silage corn and sorghum) were selected. The reason for this choosing was the numerous similarities of these two plants (including similar planting date, farm operation and consumptions). Accordingly interviews with various farmers (15 and 20 farmers was selected to filling in questionnaire for silage corn and sorghum in Gorgan suburb, respectively) required data of machinery and consumables inputs, including seeds, fertilizers, fuel and pesticides were collected. To estimate the energy consumption of inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides amount of energy per gram of active ingredient was multiplied in related coefficients and their density. Other input and output calculations of energy used in production and field operations for each of the methods was calculated using coefficients obtained from various references. After that it was analyzed in three parts, fuel consumption, and consumed fuel and global warming potential based on the carbon dioxide equivalent. Results and Discussion The most input energy in silage corn and silage sorghum was 23. 2 and 24. 7 percent respectively based on fertilizer consumption. Also, the highest direct input energy in corn silage and forage sorghum was 27. 3 and 31. 4 respectively, related to fuel. The output energy in silage sorghum was more than silage corn, such that the output energy in forage sorghum was 315. 56 GJ/ha more than silage corn. The main reason for this observation was the high yield of forage sorghum fields. The ratio of output to input energy in spring corn and forage sorghum were calculated 4. 3 and 15. 6 respectively. In other words, energy efficiency was higher in silage sorghum farms and this was due to the higher yield and lower inputs in the crop. The energy efficiency in corn silage was less than silage sorghum, the reason was low yield per unit area (12. 500 kg of dry matter per hectare) and more energy input in silage corn farms. In both crop the highest global warming potential (GWP) was related to nitrogen fertilizer and fuel consumption. The highest and the lowest global warming potential respectively observed in silage corn and forage sorghum (with 1845. 9 kg CO2/ha and 1729 kg CO2/ha). Consumption of agricultural inputs such as herbicides and pesticides was lower in silage sorghum farms. In both the least amount of greenhouse gas emissions related to fertilizer potassium was 39. 5 kg CO2 equivalent. Conclusions The energy input and greenhouse gas emissions in spring corn were higher than forage sorghum due to more agricultural operations (such as herbicides and pesticides consumption), in this respect the cultivation of forage sorghum had minimal environmental impacts. In both crops the consumption of fuel and fertilizer constitute the high percentage of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, the use of devices that reduce fuel consumption is recommended, also need for research and investigation on crop rotation and nitrogen fixing plants was revealed. Comparison of the global warming potential (GWP) based on the unit weight yield per hectare of silage sorghum and silage corn showed that there are very significant differences between the two crops, so that global warming potential of the spring corn planting was 12. 1 times higher than that of silage sorghum.

Introduction Nitrogen (N) is one of the main limiting factors in agroecosystems all around the world. However, high application rates of N fertilizers would led to strong environmental consequences. Reduction of N fertilizers consumption decreases production costs and environmental pollution. Therefore, we need to be enhance N efficiency due to the high N fertilizer cost and required measures to prevent the waste of N. Cultivation of diverse crop cultivars with higher resources absorption and utilization efficiency is one of the major approach in the sustainable agriculture that would led to effective use of natural and chemical inputs and reduce significantly the environmental risks. Kermanshah province is one of the maize production poles in Iran. In this province large amounts of N fertilizers annually consumes in the maize agroecosystem. Therefore, the aims of the present study were evaluating N uptake and utilization efficiency, and finally N use efficiency in the maize agroecosystem of Kermanshah Materials and Methods A split plot experiment was carried out based on randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications at the Campus of Agriculture and Natural Resources Field at Razi University at 2014. Treatments were four levels of N fertilizer rate (40, 70, 100 and 140 percent of the maize demand to N which were 138, 238, 350 and 483 kg. ha-1 urea) as main plots and three maize cultivars including SC-704, BC-678 and Simon as sub plots. Biomass of nitrogen at anthesis and maturity phases was measured by Kjeldahl method. Then, N uptake and utilization efficiency, and nitrogen use efficiency were calculated. Data analysis was done by SAS software (Ver 9. 4) and means comparison were tested by LSD at 5% level. Results and Discussion The results showed that by increasing of N fertilizer rate from 40 to 140 percent of maize demand, amount of biomass N at anthesis and maturity phases changed from 1. 2 to 1. 1 percent, and 1. 1 to 1. 5 percent, respectively. By rising of N fertilizer rate from 40 to 140 percent of maize demand, total dry matter yield and grain yield improved about 58 and 63 percent, respectively. Grain yield of Simon cv was higher than other cultivars. Simon cv. had maximum grain yield in the N fertilizer level of 140 % and this increase was observed in 100% N in SC-704 and BC-678 cultivars %. The N utilization efficiency and N use efficiency were also different among maize cultivars. The highest N uptake efficiency was related to SC-704 cv. Moreover, Simon cultivar had the highest N utilization efficiency (38. 1 g. kg-1) and N use efficiency (31. 3 g kg-1). The lowest N utilization efficiency (32. 6 g kg-1) and N use efficiency (26. 8 g kg-1) were related to BC-678 cv. Our results also indicated that N fertilizer rate significantly had been affected on N uptake efficiency, N utilization efficiency, and N use efficiency. Increased N fertilizer rate from 40 to 70 percent of maize demand, improved N uptake efficiency and N use efficiency while these measured features decreased by more rising of N fertilizer rate from 70 to 140 percent. N utilization efficiency decreased about 22 percent (from 38. 8 to 30. 2 g kg-1) with increased N fertilizer rate from 70% to 140% of maize demand. The highest N utilization efficiency was 30. 2 g kg-1 that was due to the fertilizer level of 40 percent and the lowest N utilization efficiency was 17. 6 g kg-1 which was gained through fertilizer level of 140 percent for SC-704 cv. Conclusion The results of this study indicated that more traits in different maize cultivars such as grain yield have been improved by increased N fertilizer rate. But, evaluation of traits related to resources use efficiency showed that N use efficiency reduced by rising of N fertilizer rate for all maize cultivars. Therefore, from ecological viewpoint it can be concluded that excessive N fertilizer consumption not only did not improve productivity in the maize agroecosystems but also increased environmental hazard dramatically.

Introduction Crop growth simulation models are powerful tools in determining optimal agriculture management strategies and the sustainability of production in agroecosystems. These models predict plant growth, water use and yield to understand the response of crops to the dynamics of climate– plant– water systems, to evaluate physiological traits for genetic yield improvement and to help make decisions that optimize use of available resources. Since implementing field research required time and cost, thus computer simulation models can save time and money by simulation doing extensive testing. The CliPest model is a generic dynamic simulation model for evaluation of climate change impacts, crop yields and losses due to invasion multiple pests damage. Therefore, the objectives of the present study were: (1) to calibration of the CliPest model (2) to evaluate the performances CliPest model to simulating winter wheat growth, development and grain yield in different wild oat plant densities under Kermanshah weather condition. Materials and Methods A field experiment was done based on randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications and a greenhouse experiment was conducted based on completely randomized design (CRD( with three replications to the CliPest model of calibration and validation in the campus of Agriculture and Natural Resources at Razi University during 2014-2015. The treatments were wild oat plant densities (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 plant m-2) in the field experiment and nitrogen fertilizer application (3. 1, 6. 2 and 10. 1 g urea pot-1) in the greenhouse experiment. The required model inputs were daily solar radiation (MJ. m-2. d-1), and daily minimum and maximum temperature (° C). Model performance was evaluated by comparing simulated and measured values of winter wheat phenological development stages, total dry weight and grain yield for independent wild oat plant densities treatments (fourth replication from the field experiment that did not use in the model calibration process) by root mean square error (RMSE), normalized RMSE (nRMSE) and index of agreement (d). Results and Discussion The results of CliPest calibration showed that nRMSE for total dry weight yield and grain yield of winter wheat and total dry weight of wild oat observed 7. 7, 3. 1 and 23. 4%, respectively. The results of CliPest validation showed that nRMSE for phonological development stages, total dry weight yield, grain yield winter wheat observed 2. 4, 24. 3, 4. 8%, respectively and for phenological development stages and total dry weight of wild oat observed 2. 2 and 23. 4% of, respectively. The nRMSE for percent of total dry weight yield loss by wild oat damage and percent of grain yield loss due to wild oat damage in winter wheat observed 15. 7 and 11. 6%, respectively. The results of Clipest showed that with increasing of wild oat plant density, total dry weight and grain yield of winter wheat decreased which was agreement by obtained data in the field experiment. The results of index of agreement (d) and r2 coefficient between observed and simulated data compared to 1: 1 line also showed that the CliPest was able to simulate successfully more than 90% and 95% of observed differences in studied traits, respectively. Conclusion The results indicated that the CliPest model was able to simulate successfully the observed growth traits of winter wheat and wild oat as well as wheat yield loss by oat damage in different plant densities under Kermanshah climate condition. It seems that careful selection in calibrated parameters in the sensitivity analysis process, measure these parameters in the field and the greenhouse conditions and use of them in the model structure were the main reason to achieve high accuracy for predictions.

Introduction Intercropping is a crop management system involving two or more crop species grown together for at least portion of their respective productive cycle and planted sufficiently close to each other so that inter specific competitions occurs. The reason of yield advantage of intercropping are mainly that environmental resources such as water, light and nutrients can be utilized more efficiently in intercropping than in the respective sole cropping systems. Intercropping system is one the efficient crop production managements with minimum adverse effects on the environment, using the principles of ecological agriculture. Materials and Methods In order to study the ecophysiological aspects and forage quality intercropping maize (Zea mays L. ) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. ), an experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications at the Research Farm, University of Zabol in 2015. The experimental treatments were: sole cropping of maize, 100% maize + 15% cowpea, 100% maize + 30% cowpea, 100% maize + 45% cowpea, 100% maize + 60% cowpea and sole cropping of cowpea. Each plot consisted of five rows planting, with a distance of 60 cm length was formed five meters. Maize and cowpea seeds were simultaneously sown. Photosynthesis active radiation (PAR) was measured between 12-13 hours on occasions. Mean values for each plot were then used to calculate the percentage of PAR interception by plant canopy as follows: %PARi = [1-(PARb / PARa)] × 100 Where the subscript i designates intercepted PAR, a and b subscripts designate PAR above and below the plant canopy, respectively. Corn in the dough stage of grain and cowpea were at physiological maturity stage, harvest was carried out simultaneously. Samples dried at 70° C for 48 h and weighed. The crude protein content was calculated by multiplying the Kjeldahl nitrogen concentration by 6. 25. ADF (acid detergent fiber) and NDF (neutral detergent fiber) concentrations were measured. Digestible dry matter (DDM) were estimated. DDM = 88. 9-(0. 779 x ADF % dry matter basis) Intercropping advantage and competition between maize and cowpea in intercrops were calculated LER was used to quantify the efficiency of the intercropping treatments: LER = Ymm/ Ybb + Ymb/ Ycc where Ymm and Ycc are yields of pure stands of maize and cowpea, Ymc and Ycm are yields of maize and cowpea in the intercropping system, respectively (Willey, 1979). Statistical computations using SAS software and comparison of means were tested by LSD at P<0. 05 level. Results and Discussion Physiological and morphological differences between intercrop components affect their ability of using environmental resources, light interception and water. The results showed that intercropping systems had a significant effect on environmental resources consumption, where intercropping systems had more light interception and water compared to sole crops. Maximum absorption of photosynthesis active radiation in the canopy cropping system 100% maize + 60% cowpea and the cropping systems also mixed, soil temperature was lower compared to sole cropping. Crude protein concentration and maize ash mixed with cowpea increased, cell wall concentrations and acid detergent fiber (ADF) maize reduced. The highest protein content (%9. 41), dry matter digestibility (72. 77), and ash (12. 16) obtained in mixed 100% maize + 60% cowpea. The highest neutral detergent fiber (46. 66%) and ADF (26. 66%) obtained from sole cropping maize. Due to the negative correlation between the ADF and DMD, ADF Reducecaused increase DMD. The highest dry matter yield of treatment 100% maize + 60% cowpea With (14. 61 t ha-1), while the least yield obtained from the culturing of cowpea (0. 93 t. ha-1). Intercropping systems showed superiority over pure cultures in terms of qualitative and quantitative production of forage. Conclusion The results of this study showed that the total yield of forage can be improved by adding cowpea ratios to the maize pure stand. The calculated LER exceeded unity the intercrops, showed that resources such as water, light and nutrients utilized more efficiently in intercropping than in the respective sole cropping systems. Based on the overall results of the experiment considering total forage yield and quality, 100M+60 C intercrop could be suggested farmers to produce acceptable higher amount of forage in quality than sole cropping of maize.

Introduction The discussions on environmental sustainability have eventually come to include agricultural products in recent years. LCA is an ISO-standardized method, in which an inventory is used to determine the inputs and emissions associated with each stage of production life cycle and to express their quantitative share in a specific impact category. Southern Khorasan Province is the most eastern province in Iran. Drought and increased price of forage in this province have turned the growing of silage corn into an economical attraction for this province. Consequently, it is necessary to environmentally evaluate this crop in order to have more comprehensive understanding of its production, in addition to its economical evaluation. In this study was tried to examine the environmental impacts of silage corn production by an integrated LCA and DEA method to better understand its production and to recommend approaches for mitigating its environmental impacts. Materials and Methods Data were collected by questionnaire and face-to-face interviews with farmers and agriculture experts and analyzed using DEAP2. 1 and Simapro software. An LCA project has four phases include goal and scope definition, life cycle inventory analysis, life cycle impact assessment, and Interpretation. An important part of goal and scope definition is to select system boundaries. The focus of the present study is on production phase and on-farm processes. In fact, farm gate is selected as system boundary and all of environmental impact estimated for the production of one tone of product. Various methods have been introduced by different institutions and countries for environmental impacts assessment. One of them is IMPACT 2002+ method which is a combination of three methods of IMPACT 2002, Eco-Indicater 99andCML. This method is selected because it assesses 15 impact indicators, and it assesses four end point indicators (damage category) by combining these impact indicators. The consumption of inputs within the studied system boundary will result in direct emission of pollutants into air, water and soil. These emissions have been calculated according to the literature. Results and Discussion Results for efficiency showed that mean technical efficiency, pure technical efficiency and scale efficiency were 0. 80, 0. 93, and 0. 86, respectively. In CCR mode, 13 units and in BCC mode, 22 units were efficient. Technical efficiency varied in 0. 33-1 range with 0. 20 SE. The lowest pure technical efficiency was 0. 64 with 0. 10 SE. If inefficient units could approach efficiency boundary by adjusting their consumption pattern, the results for impact categories could be reduced by 3. 2-28. 2%. The lowest reduction (3. 3%) was the indicator of carcinogens, and the highest reduction ( 28. 2%) was terrestrial ecotoxicity followed by mineral extraction with 25. 01% reduction and land occupation and ionizing radiation with 20. 8% reduction. Normalized results showed that the highest environmental burden in silage corn production was related to Respiratory inorganics followed by global warming, non-renewable energy and carcinogens. Environmental burden of electricity had the highest impact on environment pollution in five impact indicators (carcinogens, non-carcinogens, aquatic toxicity, global warming, and non-renewable energies). The assessment of damage categories revealed that the highest effect was on human health and then, on climate change and resources. Electricity, manure and on system emissions also played the most important role in environmental impacts of silage corn production in this region. Conclusion According to the results of the present study on the one hand and the necessity for silage corn production in the region to meet livestock sector’ s demand on the other hand, reform in irrigation system and water pumping system to reduce water and electricity use as well as motivating farmers to analyze soil to determine the optimum fertilization rate and increasing their understanding of how to apply this input are the most important factors to reduce environmental impacts of silage corn production in the region.