AGROECOLOGY (بوم شناسی کشاورزی)
Year:2021 | Volume:13 | Issue:2|Papers Count:11

Introduction[1]A significant area of the country's rangelands has been destroyed, or their population has been severely reduced due to various factors such as uncontrolled exploitation, climate change, and other factors. Irregular and out-of-season grazing in different regions and the mismatch of the number of livestock with forage production capacity in the country's rangelands has reduced the population of edible plants in a region and reduced livestock's power supply in the country. Hedysarum kopetdaghi plant is an important species that grows in the rangeland ecosystems of North Khorasan, Khorasan Razavi, and Golestan provinces. It is one of the high-quality perennial herbaceous species that is mainly seen as a companion species in combination with summer pasture types in the country's northeast. The forage of this plant is of good quality and is grazed in all vegetative and reproductive stages. Considering the importance of forage, determining ecological factors affecting vegetation changes and examining the response of this species to changes in ecological factors in different ecological conditions, and determining the different stages of growth of this species in Khorasan Razavi province was studied by generalized Additive Model (GAM). Materials and MethodsKopetdaghi sainfoin (H. kopetdaghi) responses to some environmental gradients were studied in its natural habitat in the northern heights of Binalood )Kalate Ahan( and the heights of Hezar Masjed (Marichgan), respectively. Vegetation sampling was done by the systematic-random method. The plant growth calendar (phenology) was recorded in different stages of vegetation, flowering, maturation, and seed fall, plant drying, and the phenological diagram of the plant were drawn in accordance with the Embrothermic curve. At the data preparation stage, initially the nominal and sequential variables such as soil texture and the relative data in the column related to each factor were identified. Generalized Additive Model (GAM) was used to investigate the response of this species to soil and topographic factors. The percentage of canopy cover of O. chorassanica was used to explore the relationship between species and the environment, and the ecological range was calculated as a function of the Gaussian response. Results and DiscussionThe results indicated that H. kopetdaghi is more distributed on sandy loam to silty loam soils. It has the highest yield in moderate amounts of sand (about 50%) and silt (about 35%). The results also showed that the relationship between the density of H. kopetdaghi and altitude (m. ASL) increases but then decreases with increasing altitude more than 1700 meters. It seems that altitude is a limiting factor (e. g. decreasing temperature and increasing light intensity) that affects species distribution. The response pattern of H. kopetdaghi along the gradient of litter and lime percentage of the soil followed the monotonic increase model, but along the gradient of the soil stones and pebbles, percentage followed the monotonic decrease model. The results also showed that the range of H. kopetdaghi canopy cover was 0. 5%-1. 82%, the density was 0. 05-0. 21 plants m-2, and dry biomass was 2. 14-6. 64 g. m-2, and the mean of dry forage yield was 38. 5 g. plant-1. ConclusionOverall, this study indicated that H. kopetdaghi showed a significant response to changes in factors such as soil texture, saturation moisture content, lime percentage, organic carbon content, acidity, soil slope percentage, and litter percentage of soil surface. Among these factors, soil texture, lime content, and soil saturation moisture content are the most important factors affecting the presence and performance of this species, which can provide valuable information for the use of this species in degraded rangeland operations in areas with similar ecological characteristics. According to the above results, the cultivation of H. kopetdaghi is recommended as a palatable forage in low-yielding drylands with precipitation more than 200 mm. It is necessary to continue research on planting this species as well as its role in forage production and sustainable production in rain-fed grains.

Introduction Conservation agriculture is a powerful factor in accessing future food needs. Protective agricultural practices can preserve and regenerate soil. Conservation tillage is a method for managing droughts to maintain ground water, as well as reducing agricultural production costs and increasing soil organic matter. According to the research, about 60% of the mechanical energy used in mechanized agriculture is related to soil tillage operations. The precision of the use of field implements and logs is important for any kind of tillage equipment (Larney et al., 2017). Appropriate tillage methods, depending on the soil type and climatic conditions, can be effective in achieving suitable water conditions in the soil. When the soil is facing limited water supply, tillage is done to maximize soil moisture retention. Energy consumption analysis can show how to reduce energy input into the production system and increase energy efficiency. In order to deal with and prevent such a situation, conservation is considered as an effective solution in many countries of the world. One of the basic goals of each production sector, such as agriculture, is to increase production and reduce costs. Therefore, it is important to determine economic indicators by determining production costs and yield, as well as determining the ratio of profit to cost (Erdal et al., 2007). In this research, the energy and economic indices and seed yield for different protective tillage systems of wheat cultivation with wheat yield approach were compared. Material and Methods In this research, the state of energy consumption and economic efficiency of different tillage systems in native conditions of agricultural plain of Naz was investigated for wheat. Tillage systems included conventional tillage (CT), no tillage and no plant remnants (NT), minimum tillage using combinate (MTCO), minimum tillage using no tillage planting machine (MTNT), no tillage with plant remnants (NTR). The purpose of this study was to study the energy consumption and economic efficiency of different soil tillage systems in native conditions of Naz Sardinia plain. Results and DiscussionIn wheat cultivation, the MTCO system had the highest wheat grain yield and energy indices, the system with a ratio of 4. 84 to 4. 9% energy, to 29. 9 kg. MJ-1 of energy efficiency, and to 3. 42 MJ. kg-1 of intensity Energy is the best system for wheat cultivation in terms of energy indicators. The NTR system with direct energy consumption of 4570, indirect 17163, renewable 2561 and non-renewable 19398, as well as energy systems of 4376 MJ. ha-1, in general, was the least energy-consuming system in terms of energy, but had a low yield of 5025 kg. ha-1 of wheat Should be. Looking at the obtained values for economic indicators of protective systems in wheat cultivation, NT and NTR systems in profit and cost indicators and economic productivity are respectively 13. 8 and 13. 4% higher than the CT system, and also with 22 and 21% higher gross profit compared to the CT system, both showed acceptable yield for these indices. Also, in the Economic Indicators section, despite the lower cost of production for the NTR system, the MTCO system has 26% higher performance and higher sales prices and 25. 5% lower than the NTR system and 35. 2% more gross margin than the NTR system. MTCO system has the best status among 5 systems in terms of profit-to-cost and economic efficiency indices with 34. 4% difference compared to CT system. In general, MTCO, MTNT, NT, NTR and CT systems are maximal to minimum for all gross profit, gross margin, profit-to-cost, profitability, and sales margins, respectively. Conclusion Eventually, the MTCO system, with its superiority in energy and economic indicators, was introduced as the optimal option for tillage and planting of wheat in the native conditions of the agricultural plains of Naz.

Introduction Ecosystem Services frameworks are emerging as an approach of capturing the wider impacts of policy decisions or evaluating land use change in order to more comprehensively take into account the range of effects on the environment, and on the benefits humans receive from. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) (2005) defines ecosystem services as ‘ ‘ the benefits that humans obtain from ecosystems” . Costanza et al. (1997) postulated that ecosystem services comprise of ‘ ‘ flows of materials, energy, and information” from the natural environment to the society. Yield and production for agricultural crops have been improved during the last century, however, these achievements have caused different environmental social and safety problems for human and the environment such as increase in greenhouse gases, eutrophication of rivers, lakes and other water bodies. This study aimed to evaluate environmental consequences of agroecosystems managed conventionally in three Razavi Khorasan, South Khorasan and North Khorasan Provinces. The environmental consequences of intensive agriculture were grouped into damages maid to natural resources such as water, air, soil, biodiversity and human health affected by over-consumption of chemical fertilizer, herbicide and pesticide. Materials and Methods Cultivated area and consumption of chemical inputs in North Khorasan, South Khorasan and Razavi Khorasan provinces during 2004-2009 were determined. Environmental impacts were calculated using six categories i. e. air (emission of greenhouse gases such as N2O, CO2 and CH4 to the atmosphere), water (quality criteria such as NO3-and pesticide concentrations in water), soil (amounts of NO3-, organic carbon, pesticides and herbicides in soil), biodiversity (losses of pastures, jungles and bee hives), human health (residues of Diazinone, Azinophos-Methyl and NO3-in some vegetables) and natural resources (losses of nitrogen fertilizers via leaching and volatilization and pesticides consumption effects) affected by chemical inputs such as fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides. Results and discussion Results indicated that decreasing trends in use of chemical pesticide and herbicide were observed in different agroecosystems of Khorasan. Nitrate of water used in agricultural area was higher than allowable limit of 10 mg per liter. Residues of chemical herbicide including Diazinone and Azinophos-Methyl in irrigated water were 23. 18± 16. 35 and 15. 78± 0. 68 mg. kg-1, respectively. The maximum emission of greenhouse gases including CO2, CH4 and N2O were calculated in Razavi Khorasan. Nitrate concentration in the soil was higher than the critical limit. Organic carbon content in natural habitat and rangeland was higher than that in the cropland. Also, total number of honey hives was increasing but the hives for local bees were almost reaching to zero in the recent years. The maximum range of nitrate for tomato, eggplant, cucumber and spinach were 1. 4, 0. 75, 17. 15 and 7. 38% higher than allowable limit, respectively. For sugar beet upper and lower limits of nitrate were lower than the allowable limit. Conclusion Soil is a very slow forming resource, and similarly to other habitats and ecosystems, it is coming under intensifying pressures due to anthropocentric and industrial activities. Soil ecosystem services provide multiple benefits to all organisms. Nitrate concentration for leafy vegetable was higher than for kitchen garden plants. Nitrogen and phosphorus contents for soil in Razavi Khorasan were higher relative to North Khorasan and South Khorasan. Nitrogen enhanced soil carbon accumulation as it stimulates plant growth and its productivity. However, accumulation of soil carbon depends on the delicate balance between increased carbon inputs to soil from litter and enhanced soil respiration rates. Crop residues and manure are returned to the soil in traditional farming systems, improving soil ecosystem services and soil chemical, physical and biological characteristics. On the other hand, application of inorganic and chemical fertilizers to benefit crop yields often decreases the soil services as it has negative influences on soil structure, infiltration and water-holding capacity.

Introduction Intercropping is a well-known agro-ecological practice for its dramatic effect on pest and weed control, increasing productivity as well as enhancing resources (radiation, water and nitrogen) use efficiency. All these beneficial effects are the results of increased species diversity which presumably would be higher with introducing more component species. On the other hand, crop growth analysis provides indices for quantifying the rate of dry matter production and allocation of dry matter to the other organs, particularly to leaves. It seems that growth indices of intercropped species relative to their pure stands could be useful for better understanding of higher productivity of more diverse intercrops. The objective of this study was comparison of growth indices and dry matter allocation as well as land equivalent ratio of fennel (Foeniculum vulgar), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and sesame (Sesamum indicum) grown in monoculture or intercropping systems. Materials and Methods The experiment was conducted as randomized complete block design with three replications and seven treatments including pure fennel (F), pure sesame (S), pure bean (B), row intercropping with 1: 1 ratio of FB, SB and FS as well as 1: 1: 1 intercrop of FSB. All treatments were sown in recommended planting date and density. Total aboveground materials of each plot were sampled in 5 randomly selected plants in two-weekly intervals and repeated seven times during growth period. Green leaf area index (GAI) and total aboveground dry matter (DM) were measured for each species in sole and intercropped plots. Time course of LAI and DM was estimated by fitting logistic peak and sigmoid functions to the measured values for each species, respectively. Crop growth rate (CGR; g m-2 d-1) of each species was estimated as the first derivative of the sigmoid function. Economic yield of species was measured by harvesting the whole plots and used for calculation of land equivalent ratio (LER) for intercropping treatments. Results and Discussion Results showed that for all studied species, the growth indices were lower in intercropping compared to monoculture. Maximum GAI (1. 28), dry matter (184. 6 g. m2) and crop growth rate (5. 2 g. m-2. day-1) for fennel was observed in pure stand. For sesame, the highest GAI (4. 2) was obtained in the sesame – fennel intercrop, however, maximum dry matter (1023 g. m-2) and crop growth rate (24. 5 g. m-2. day-1) were achieved in the pure stand of sesame. Similarly in bean, maximum GAI (3. 8), dry matter (546. 39 g m-2) and crop growth rate were observed in pure stand. However, the lowest GAI (0. 61), dry matter (54 g m-2) and crop growth rate (1. 6 g m-2 day-1) of fennel was observed in fennel-sesame and fennel-sesame– bean intercrops, respectively. The minimum GAI (3. 24), dry matter (286 g. m-2) and crop growth rate (6. 6 g. m-2. day-1) of sesame was obtained in fennel-sesame-bean, fennel-sesame and fennel-sesame-bean, respectively. The minimum LAI (3. 08), dry matter (110 g. m-2) and crop growth rate (3. 26 g m-2day-1) of sesame was observed in fennel-sesame-bean treatment. Despite the lower growth indices, LER was grater that 1 in all intercrops with a highest value (1. 09) in sesame – bean showing the better allocation of dry matter between component species of intercropping. Conclusion While the LAI, DM and CGR was lower when species were intercropped, the overall rate of dry matter production of intercropping systems was about 28%, on average, higher as compared with pure stands leading to almost 10% higher productivity. Addition of the third species into intercrops has no significant effect on productivity. However, it seems that using species with diverse functional traits to increase functional diversity could cause higher productivity of intercropping systems.

Introduction Considering prolonged drought condition in the country, water shortage, and water and soil salinity, some crop and current horticulture productions in the arid zone of the country face many constraints in terms of water supply for growth and yield loss. In this way, introducing new plants with high production yield is at the top of the agenda of the Iran Ministry of Agriculture to obtain high-quality production. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd. ) is an annual plant originated from Latin America. In addition to high nutrition value, this crop shows considerable resistance against a broad range of abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity and cold; and can be cultivated in marginal lands. Considering inability of most agricultural soils in the country to thoroughly supply nutrients for plants, chemical fertilizer consumption in Iran is much higher than the global average. Thus, in order to increase nutrient use efficiency, fertilizer utilization should change to render essential nutritious available for plants during a long time. Using bio-fertilizer dissolving phosphorus and nitrogen stabilizer is an optimal cultivation method, which improves adsorption of nutrition by plants and decreases soil salinity, and environmental contamination caused by indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers. Materials and Methods In order to evaluate the chemical and bio-fertilizer effects on yield, yield component and some physiological properties of Quinoa under water deficit in saline soil, an experiment was conducted as split plot factorial layout based on the randomized complete block design with three replications in 2018-2019 crop season at Dastgerd area in Isfahan province. In this experiment four levels of irrigation (25, 50, 75 and 100 % of field capacity) as the main factor, and the combination of biofertilizer including control (without bio-fertilizer), Nitroxin, Biophosphorus and combination of Nitroxin, Biophosphorus and chemical fertilizer in two levels of no application and integrated application of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers as sub-factor were considered. The average amount of water used in treatments of 100, 75, 50 and 25% of field capacity was 4204. 1, 3427. 2, 2665. 6 and 2828. 8 m3, respectively. Chemical fertilizer treatments (250 kg urea and 75 kg triple super phosphate fertilizer per hectare) were based on the results of soil test and fertilizer recommendation by the laboratory. Results and Discussion Results showed that in all fertilizer treatments with drought stress increment, measured physiological traits (total chlorophyll and leaf area index), and seed yield component including the number of clusters per square meter, seed number in cluster and seed thousand weight decreased, and consequently seed yield and Quinoa harvest index decreased. Under severe drought stress (25% field capacity irrigation treatment), grain yield and harvest index decreased by about 76 and 22%, respectively, compared to non-stress conditions (100% field capacity irrigation treatment). However, in all stress levels and both application and non-application of chemical fertilizers, simultaneous inoculation with both Nitroxin, Biophosphorus bio-fertilizers made the largest contribution to decreased stress influences and significantly increased all traits studied. The nitrogen fertilizer resources had the most effect on decreasing osmotic stress consequence in chlorophyll content, leaf area index and spike number per square meter. Therefore, since spike number is the main part of seed yield, it could be stated that nitrogen fertilizer applied in this experiment had the largest contribution to increase of seed yield. Phosphorus fertilizer resources available in this study also showed the highest influence to decrease in stress effects of 1000-seed weight. This could be attributed to nitrogen influence on vegetative growth and physiological role of phosphorus to generate flower and seed production. Conclusion Our results revealed that despite soil salinity of surveyed area, Quinoa can complete growth period even in a 25% level of field capacity (severe drought stress) and produce seeds. This highlights the high resistance of Quinoa to severe environmental stress conditions.

Introduction Demand for food in the world is likely to be nearly two times the current level by 2030, while the amount of new land for cultivating area is very limited (Marzban et al., 2014). Therefore, the design and implementation of systems with stability and performance are highly felt (Hosseini et al., 2016). In agriculture, there are different perspectives for imitation of nature, one example of which is sustainable agriculture. Intercropping is defined as a sustainable agricultural operation in which two or more species grow simultaneously during a season on a piece of land (Amani Machiani et al., 2018). By the way, the use of bio-fertilizers is a method to revive the natural flora of the soil and it is considered as a path to sustainable agriculture (Baqual & Das, 2006). Unfortunately, most conventional agricultural systems based on the high consumption of chemical fertilizers, are deprived of the benefits of coexistence of useful microorganisms with the plant, such as mycorrhiza coexistence. Therefore, it seems that using the intercropping and bio-fertilizer inoculation can be an effective step towards sustainable production in the agricultural lands. Materials and Methods The experiment was conducted as factorial mode based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at the research farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, Bu-Ali Sina University. Using and non-using of mycorrhiza and 5 cultivation patterns including the pure crop of pumpkin, pure bean cultivation and additive intercropping of 20, 40 and 60% beans with pumpkin were the experimental treatments. The cultivation of both species was carried out on 9. 3. 2017. At the end of the growth period, harvest was done from each plot after removing the marginal effect, and oil percentage, oil yield, Pepo equivalent yield )PEY(, water use efficiency (WUE) and nitrogen utilization efficiency (NUE), the percentage of root clonization, as well as the usefulness indices of the intercropping were measured. The data were analyzed by SAS9. 1 and the means were compared using LSD test at a probability level of 5%. Results and Discussion The results indicated that the effect of crop pattern in both application and non-application of mycorrhiza were significant on the number of fruits per plant, seed weight, seed yield, oil yield, equivalent yield, water use efficiency and nitrogen use efficiency in pumpkin, as well as number of pods per plant, the weight of 100 seeds and grain yield of the bean. The percentage of oil in pumpkin and the percentage of root clonization in both plants were also significant in the case of mycorrhiza application. The highest amount of pumpkin equivalent yield, water use efficiency, and nitrogen use efficiency were obtained from additive intercropping of 40% bean with pumpkin under mycorrhiza application. The partial land equivalent ratio in the pumpkin was higher than that of bean, which can be concluded that the pumpkin cropping is influenced positively by the intercropping with the bean. The highest values of land equivalent ratio (LER(, relative value total )RVT( and Cumulativerelative efficiency index )REIc( were obtained from 40% bean incropped with pumpkin treatment. According to the results of CC, CR, and AG, it can be concluded that the bean is suitable for intercropping with pumpkin. ATER values of more than 1 were obtained in all treatments, except for the additive intercropping of 60% bean with pumpkin in both application and non-application of mycorrhiza. The highest amount of LUE and SPI in the case of application and non-application of mycorrhiza were obtained from additive intercropping of 40 and 20% bean with pumpkin, respectively, indicating the ability of the mycorrhiza to modify the competition of pumpkin with beans. Conclusion According to the results of this study it was indicated that in the case of mycorrhiza application, the amount of all traits in the same treatments increased, and the 40% bean intercropped with pumpkin together with the application of mycorrhiza was determined as the superior treatment, which could be considered for the sustainable agriculture development and maintaining the ecosystem health.

Introduction Intercropping agriculture is one of the pillars of sustainable agriculture that it has become popular in many countries for reasons such as increasing in the quantity and quality of agricultural products (Pakgohar & Ghanbari, 2014). Currently in Iran, because of the lack quality fodder, the development of the livestock industry requires a serious approach to animal feed, which seems to be very important planting of these crops with intercropping in sustainable agriculture (Nasiri et al., 2015). Intercropping cereals and legumes is one of the kind intercropping that based on the results, it can increase the quality of forage produced (Javanmard et al., 2015). The purpose of this study was determination the total yield and forage quality obtained from intercropped Tepary bean and two millet cultivars. Materials and Methods The field experiment was done in a randomized complete blocks design with 30 treatment and three replications in Jiroft during 2015-2016 growth season. The treatments included combination of Tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolus L. Gray) and two cultivars of millet (cv. Pishahang and cv. Bastan) and replacement intercropping ratio 75: 25, 50: 50, 25: 75 Tepary bean-Bastan millet, sole cropping of Tepary bean, Bastan millet and the same intercropping ratio of Tepary bean and Pishahang millet. The two plants were cultivated simultaneously and manually. The intra rows and inter rows were 50 and 10 cm2 respectively. The traits evaluated were dry forage yield, fresh forage, ash percentage, dry matter digestibility, water soluble carbohydrates, percentage of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium. The total dry matter yield per plot was calculated from 1 m2 and the forage quality traites of the dried and milled samples in each plot was measured using infrared spectrometer such as Acid detergent fiber (ADF), Dry matter digestibility (DMD) and Water soluble carbohydrate (WSC). The amount of Na and K of forage was determined in the extracts prepared from samples of each treatment by flame Photometer and The amount of Ca and Mg in the extracts was read by atomic absorption. Data analyses were conducted using SAS ver. 12 and analysis of means was done with the Duncan’ s test in significant at 5% probability level. Results and Discussion The results of this study showed that the highest total dry matter yield was obtained from 50: 50 t of Tepary bean-Bastan millet (with 87. 57 and 12. 59% increasement than sole cropping of Bastan millet and Tepary bean, respectively) and the same ratio of Tepary bean and Pishahang millet. It seems that the better utilization of resources, morphological differences of plants and type of cultivar in intercropping system produced more dry matter yield than sole cropping. The most of Ash, DMD, WSC, Na, K, Ca and Mg, was obtained from intercropping treatments. Also the highest Relative Yield Total (RYT) in evaluation of total dry forage yield was obtained from 50: 50 Tepary bean-millet treatment (2. 16). Highest level of competition was observed in the relative yield of total dry forage from 75: 25 Tepary bean-millet (1. 36). In evaluating the benefits of sorghum and bean mung bean intercropping, the researchers reported more than one relative yield total in all intercropping treatments (Shaker-Koohi et al., 2014). Conclusion According to the results of this study the highest total forage yield obtained from 50: 50 Tepary bean-millet treatment. Also the quality traits of forage such as Ash, DMD, WSC and amount of Na, K, Ca and Mg were increased in intercropping treatments. Total RYT increased in 50: 50 Tepary bean+ millet. Totally this result showed inter cropping of bean and millet was better than sole cropping and Therefore, it is possible to introduce intercropping of cereals and legumes as one of the effective methods for producing high quality forage.

Introduction Method include seedling size and planting date. Since field experiments are usually laborious and costly, the simulation models could be used as a useful tool for investigating such factors. Due to climate change affects the outputs of crop models, the crop growth simulation models should be widely evaluated with empirical data to ensure that simulation of crop growth under a different management strategy or future weather conditions is reliable. Martials and Methods In the present study, the effect of direct-seeding and four seedling sizes (13, 16, 19 and 22 leaf area cm2plant-1 and at 200, 250, 300 and 350 ° C cumulative temperature) for transplanting method at four planting dates (10 June, 25 June, 14 July, and 27 July) was simulated in Gorgan environmental conditions for 16 years (2000-2015) using SSM-iCrop2 model. In this simulation, it was supposed that the corn should be harvested on 22 November to provide sufficient time for cultivating the next crop. Also, the economic evaluation between the two methods of transplanting and direct-seeding was carried out using a questionnaire from farmers and experts in the field to evaluate the costs of these two methods. Results and Discussion The simulation results showed that at early planting date (10 June), in transplanting method, the crop matured earlier between 16 to 26 days compared to the direct-seeding, depending on seedling size. In addition, the average yield of 1331 g m-2 and average net irrigation requirement of 435 mm ha-1 were obtained. At this planting date, transplanting had no effect on the yield and net irrigation requirement. In the common sowing date (25 June), the crop matured earlier between 19 to 33 days (early harvest) in the transplanting method compared to direct-seeding, however, the planting method had no effect on the yield and net amount of irrigation. At this planting date, the average yield and water requirement were 1329 g m2 and 416 mm ha-1, respectively. In late planting date (14 July), transplanting with large seedlings (leaf area of 19 and 22 cm2 plant-1) were able to complete their growth period before 22 November. Average yield and irrigation requirement were 1273 g m-2 and 381 mm ha-1, respectively. It should be noted that in late planting date, direct-seeding and transplanting with small seedlings (leaf area of 13 and 16 cm2 plant-1) were not able to complete maturity to 22 November, therefore, this planting date is not recommended. At the last planting date (27 July), all types of cultivation are not recommended as crop growth period are not completed before 22 November. Conclusion In general, it can be concluded that transplanting method would be only recommended for late planting date with using large transplants (leaf area of 19 and 22 cm2 plant-1). However, transplanting did not significantly decrease the amount of net irrigation requirement at any of the planting dates, and also had higher costs and lower profit.

Introduction Barley (Hordeum vulgare L. ) is considered as the second most important grain crop after wheat, due to 1. 75 million hectares harvested areas and 3. 2 million tons’ production in Iran. The irrigated fields are contributed up to 45% of total barley harvested areas (equivalent to 1. 7 million ha) and 70% of total barley production (equivalent to 2. 2 million tons). Based on the statistics reported in recent years, about 2. 5 million tons of barley imported from other countries. According to the impossibility of extending the barley cultivated areas and even the necessity of reducing fields in some parts of the country, increasing productivity per unit area of cultivated lands is recognized as the only practical way to boost the production of barley in Iran. In this regard, this study was conducted to estimate barley yield gap (Yg) and the potential of increasing barley production in irrigated condition as the first step to promote the yield and production of barley over the country. Materials and Methods Firstly, the main production zones of barley are determined; the zones which were contributed in more than 85% of barley production. The Designated climatic zones (DCZs) were identified using GYGA climatic zones (Global Yield Gap Atlas) and the distribution of barley harvested area raster layers. Subsequently, the Reference weather Stations (RWSs) within the DCZs were selected based on the values of the harvested area, and the types of soil in each of RWSs were determined by using of HC-27 soil map. SSM-iCrop2 as a crop simulation model has been employed to estimate the potential yield (Yp) in the RWSs of cultivated areas, which has previously been parameterized and evaluated, and the results have indicated the robustness of the model for simulating barley yield over the country. For estimating Yg, the data of actual yield (Ya) and the agronomic management data for estimating Yp during 15 growing seasons (2000-2014), were collected at RWSs scale. Using A bottom-up approach, the yield, and production gap values were calculated at RWSs and subsequently aggregated to DCZs and finally, extended from DCZ to country-level according to the spatial distribution of crop area and climate zones. Results and Discussion Based on GYGA protocol, 48 RWSs within 12 DCZs of irrigated barley harvested areas were demonstrated. Aggregation from the RWSs results to DCZs illustrated that the average of potential yield in DCZs of irrigated barley was estimated 7090 kg. ha-1 and the range varied from 5283 to 8286 kg. ha-1. Nevertheless, the Ya range in these climate zones was calculated between 1406 and 3723 with an average of 3009 kg. ha-1. According to the results, the DCZs which confronted to higher temperatures during the growing season have lower yields and also a significant reverse correlation between the potential yield and the growth length period (R2 = 0. 88 and p ≤ 0. 01) were shown. The correlation between total received daily solar radiation during the growing and Yp in the DCZs was significant, positively season (R2 = 0. 98 and p ≤ 0. 01). At present, the range of difference between actual and potential yield varies between 3237 to 4697 kg. ha-1 with an average of 4081 kg. ha-1 (equivalent to 58% yield gap). In other words, just around 24 to 50 percent (on an average of 42 percent) of estimated Yp in irrigated barley fields can be attainable. According to the irrigated barley harvested areas, the actual and potential production gap are calculated about 2. 21 and 2. 99 million tons in the country, respectively, and under the best management condition can lead the production to be about 4. 17 million tons. Conclusion According to the results, it was demonstrated about 58% relative yield gap between the averages of actual yield (3008 kg. ha-1) and potential yield (7090 kg. ha-1), which can be reduced by improving the production management in irrigated barley cultivated areas. For this reason, the current production of barley in irrigated lands can be increased from 2. 12 to 4. 17 million tons. This increase in production (1. 96 million tons) could provide a significant part of the country's need to the barley and bring the country closer to achieve full self-sufficiency.

Introduction Balangu (Lallemantia royleana Benth. ) is one of the medicinal plants of Lamiaceae family that contains essential oils as well as mucilage. The most important feature of this plant is the mucilage of the seeds which widely used in industrial sectors. On the other hand the seeds are a good source of fiber, oil, and protein and have medicinal and nutritional properties. Medicinal plants are rich in secondary metabolites and are potentially useful to produce natural materials. The biosynthesis of the secondary metabolites, although controlled genetically is affected strongly by environmental and agronomic factors. This plant can be grown under a wide range of agro-climatic conditions, but it is mostly confined to the arid areas due its low water requirement and high water use efficiency. It has been used as medicine since ancient times, but it has been cultivated as a medicinal plant only in recent years. The application of soil organic fertilizers is important for sustainable agriculture, healthy agricultural production of medicinal plants especially in arid and semi-arid regions and resorting soil quality. In this study the effects of irrigation regimes and soil fertilizers on qualitative and quality characteristics of balangu as a medicinal plant were evaluated. Materials and Methods The experiment was done as split plot based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at the Agricultural Research Station, University of Torbat-E-jam, Khorasan-e Razavi, Iran during 2019 growing season. Main factor was four irrigation levels (including 35 (as control), 53, 71, and 89 mm evaporation) and sub factor was four fertilizer types (such as cow manure, municipal solid waste compost and mushroom compost and control). Organic fertilizers were applied equal to 10 t. ha-1. The fertilizers were applied before sowing time. Studied traits were quantitative traits (such as plant height, root length, biological yield, seed numbers per plant, 1000-seed weight, seed yield and harvest index), and quality criteria (including mucilage percentage, swelling factor and mucilage yield). General linear model ANOVA was used for soil fertilizers and irrigation regimes on quality and quantity criteria of balangu. Duncan’ s test at p≤ 0. 05 tested the significance of differences among means. Results and Discussion The results revealed that the irrigation regimes and different fertilizers had significant effects on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of balangu as a medicinal plant. Compared with irrigation regimes, the highest and lowest values for seed yield were observed in 35 and 89 mm evaporation, respectively. The maximum and minimum values of seed yield were recorded for cow manure and control, respectively. Higher seed yield in cow manure+35 mm evaporation is due to number of seeds and 1000-seed weight. Also, the maximum mucilage content as an important factor was related to cow manure+35mm evaporation and the minimum was for 89mm evaporation+ control. Conclusion Results of this study indicated that cow manure as organic fertilizer could improve plant height, biological yield, seed yield, 1000-seed weight, seed No. per plant, harvest index, and quality criteria such as mucilage content, swelling factor and mucilage yield of balangu. The importance of cow manure is being realized and its long term adverse effects on soil chemical properties. Besides supplying micronutrients and micronutrients, organic fertilizers also improve the physical and chemical properties of soil. They are also useful in improving the efficiency of fertilizer recovery thereby resulting in higher plant yield. So, to prevent the environmental impact from extensive application of chemical fertilizers, the biological fertilizers could be recommended to insure the society health and a sustainable agriculture. Therefore, 35 mm evaporation and cow manure application is recommended for balangu cultivation under Torbat-e-Jam climatic conditions. Future studies should be conducted to evaluate the influences of different organic fertilizers and irrigation regimes for various climatic conditions.