Journal of Religious Studies
Year:2022 | Volume:16 | Issue:31|Papers Count:12

Jonathan Zittell Smith is one of the most important critics of Mircea Eliade's approach to comparative religious studies, who has written works in fields such as "comparative methodology", "Classification of Religions" and religion in the contemporary world. One-sided focus on similarity and homogenization and the discovery of similar patterns in the comparative studies of religions was the dominant method in religious studies, which was expressed by Eliade. In fact, the most important criticism of Eliade's approach is absence of serious attention to historical details, cultural and social contexts, and economic and political elements. Zittell Smith accused Eliade's comparative method to "Colonizing" the subject of research and believed that comparison does not only indicate to common and similar factors. He sought to present a comparative model that includes both differences and similarities. He reviews the main methods of comparison including (ethnological, encyclopedic, morphological, evolutionary and comprehensive comparison of religious patterns) and finally chooses the "morphological-structural" approach with emphasis on historical and anthropological components. He considers it a more correct comparative method than other methods.

Religion is a fertile context of meaning, regardless of whether it is monotheistic or non-monotheistic, it is one of the most fruitful, meaningful and influential systems that human beings have been experiencing and have never been able to ignore it completely. The present article seeks to theoretically examine the impact of religion (as a collective meaning system) on social integration and socio-political practices in the classic theories of sociology of religion (especially that of Weber, Durkheim and Simmel) and new readings of it. According to modern sociologists of religion such as Turner, Berger, and Lukman, the present epoch, is more a period of experiencing post-secular approaches or a return of the sacred to individual and social life than of secular ones. The main claim of these new theories (neo-Durkheimian approaches) is to consider religion as a key element of social integration and to emphasis on the immortality of religious meaning in the modern and postmodern world. What has now emerged as practical theology is a kind of practice-based religiosity and social and political activism that connects the individual as a citizen to a collective and sanctified meaning system.

Motion is an important concept in Islamic philosophy, theology and mysticism. Its importance in mysticism is directly related to creation and manifestation of God. Motion, in Cosmic Mysticism, has a central importance in creativity of God, explaining the levels of existence and explaining the diagrammatic aspect of the universe, which emphasizes on the unreality and invalidity of the material world. Considering that Cosmic Mysticism is very indebted to Ibn Arabi in the concept of motion and its explanation, this article tries to examine how this borrowing occurs, and how much it successes, with descriptive-analytical method. Although Cosmic Mysticism is strongly influenced by Ibn Arabi’, s mysticism in explaining the concept of motion, it has failed to exploit it and draw a precise and clear framework for it. Lack of coherence in the cosmological and methodological explanation, the deficiency in relationship between “, motion”,and love, and the confusion in its explanation, as well as ambiguity in explaining the final stage of human ascension are among the failures, which has associated “, motion”,in Cosmic Mysticism with many ambiguities and shortcomings. The numerous content and methodological deficiencies of this new movement have caused it to never gain the necessary strength to coexist with other mystical ideas.

For Heidegger, thinking cannot be limited to metaphysics, science and technology, subjectivism, representation, and logic. Rather, meditative thinking has requirements, the most important of which are questioning and getting on the path of thought. In his view, thinking (denken) and thanks giving (thank / danken) are cognate and are associated with logos or speech. However, the main feature of thinking is that it seeks an existence that invites it to think. According to Rumi, true knowledge cannot be achieved through theoretical or acquired knowledge. Rather, thinking is below mystical or by-presence perception and implies memory, intuition, taste and love. According to him, the main requirement of thinking is behavior, in the highest level of which, a perfect human being will attain certainty and knowledge by connecting with the truth. Thus, in spite of their obvious differences in terms of intellectual origin and principles of thought, but also common elements can be seen in their thought. As Heidegger and Rumi believe, the ratio belief and rationalism alone cannot lead to thinking. Rather, it is a meditative or spiritual thought that will occur through intuition and Openness.

Providing ethical patterns and solutions in relation to improving the human-human relationship as well as the human-environmental relationship is very important today. The concept of servitude (ʿ, ubū, diyya) is one of the important religious concepts in Islam and especially in Islamic mysticism and Sufism. The purpose of this study is to draw a pattern of the ethics of practical altruism and environmental protection, considering the ancient, rich and valuable heritage of Islamic Sufism. In the books of Islamic mysticism, conditions and principles have been mentioned for the concept of serving God, and acting, behaving and observing them leads to the emergence of proper moral behavior towards man and nature. This research has been done by library method and the description and analysis of the collected data show that the essential principles of the character of servitude from the perspective of Islamic mysticism include: modesty (tawā, ḍ, uʿ, ), poverty (faqr), service (ḵ, idma) and beneficence (ʾ, iḥ, sā, n). The results of this study show that modesty leads to better human interaction with humans and other creatures and prevents arrogance and domineering behavior, and belief in poverty and homelessness leads to greater human contentment and less greed to own and use environmental resources, and the principle of beneficence leads to service and help to man and nature.

Paul's contradictory view about law has provoked Christian thinkers to argue and dispute about it. Although Paul was from a Pharisee background and considered the religious law sacred and binding but he propounds the case of redemption from the curse of the law, and asserts that no one justify by law. Here the question is if no one can justify by law, why did God originally give us the law? It seems that the secret of the Paul's negative view about law is concealed in this question. If it is asked how one can be justified? Paul always says that "by Christ" and "not by law". Therefore, the only requirement to enter the community of believers is the faith in Christ, not acceptance of the law. But he emphasizes that after coming into Christian life, a Christian should act according to the divine commandments. So, it must be said that Paul was not against the law. In this article, Paul's view about religious law and its connection with salvation is surveyed in a descriptive-analytic method.

In the early Christianity, women alongside men continued to spread new religion across the world. Some of them supported Jesus’, s disciples in economic terms, and some others, traveled from village to village, from town to town in order to proclaim “, the kingdom of God”, . Thus, several women have been figured out as missionaries. Meanwhile, throughout early Christian writings, Mary the Magdalene is known as the companion (Σ, ύ, ν, τ, ρ, ο, φ, ο, ς, ) of Jesus. According to Christian writings, she witnessed the Crucifixion, and contrary to the disciple who fled, she remained faithful to her master (δ, ι, δ, α, σ, κ, ά, λ, ο, ς, ) until the last breath, and she was the first one who saw the resurrected Jesus and began to report the disciples. Moreover, Gnostic gospels and Church fathers have cited her as an apostle (α, π, ό, σ, τ, ο, λ, ο, ς, ) and even as a disciple. Particularly, Gnostic writings refer to a considerable intimacy between her and Jesus Christ. In ongoing research, by exploring the New Testament, Gnostic treatises, and the writings of Church fathers, we will examine her role and image in Christianity up until the end of Middle Ages, and will refer to Mary and Jesus’, s relationship. Additionally, we will concentrate on the main fact whether one can regard her as an apostle.

Luckmann defines religion as a meaning system that transcends man from his biological nature to become actor of the social scene. Since understanding the philosophical foundations of science is important for understanding and interpreting theories and research results accurately and clarifies the basis of the researcher's thought and coherence of his theory, in this paper the ontological, epistemological and methodological foundations this definition has been investigated. Luckmann has an intermediate position in ontology,he seems to be realistic in that religion arises in the intersubjective relationship of individuals, and has the power of social control as an institution. In epistemology and methodology, he is constructivist,believes that phenomenology is an approach can provide a framework for understanding the concepts and measuring social reality from a constructivist standpoint. But in method, he distinguishes between sociology as science and phenomenology as philosophy, and uses phenomenology as a theoretical context for his thought.

Although committed to Christian principles, Elisabeth Schü, ssler Fiorenza seeks to provide a different interpretation of the sacred texts by presenting her seven hermeneutic paradigms,the hermeneutics of Experience, Domination, Suspicion, Critical Evaluation, Creative Imagination, Re-Membering and Reconstruction, and Transformative Action for Change. By employing the hermeneutics of Suspicion, she casts doubt on the androcentric reading of the sacred texts. Then she reveals the rhetorical features of the misogynistic texts and strives to restore the transformed writings to their original version. Furthermore, Fiorenza employs the hermeneutics of the Proclaimed to reveal the omitted, distorted, or altered facts. Then, using the hermeneutics of Remembering, she narrates all applicable past experiences, to infuse creativity. Throughout these seven hermeneutics, Fiorenza insists on the necessity of the transition from the concept of the archetype to the prototype, to dislodge the sacred text and its interpretations, permitting new readings. In addition, the gender dominance system (Kyriarchy), throughout the pyramid of power should be scrutinized and simultaneously, after deconstruction, it is necessary to consider rhetoric reconstruction to make women aware of the “, false consciousness”,embedded and internalized by the patriarchy in the androcentric text and help them in their efforts to free themselves from it.

Abraham Abulafia and Isaac Luria, two famous Jewish mystics, have presented a different and new description of creation and salvation, which is very different from the Torah tradition. However, both of them have presented their teachings in the form of interpretation of the Torah. In accord with the early Kabbalistic tradition, Abulafia believes that the creation took place through a series of divine emanations. Salvation is like climbing a ladder or the reverse course of the creation process, during which the soul rejoins the world of divinity and will be redeemed. But Luria explains the process of creation using the concept of Tzimtzum (God's retreat) and believes that humans are subject to repeated births and deaths. But, with certain practices, including religious rituals, meditation and penance, the long process of reincarnation can be shortened. So man plays an important role in the process of salvation.

Christianity was a reform movement within the Shari'a-centered religion of Judaism that, after about half a century, by accepting non-Jews, separated from Judaism. With the spread of this religion, probably around 1st century, the early church was gradually formed. The Holy Spirit is one of the common themes and categories between Judaism and Christianity, which, according to Christians and from the New Testament point of view, has played an important role in the establishment and formation of the early church and its survival. The companionship of the Holy Spirit with Jesus from birth and at all times, also filling the apostles with him in Pentecost and the presence of the Holy Spirit when baptism of Jewish and Gentile converts, are the effective functions of the Spirit in the survival and spread of Christianity. The Holy Spirit has also played an effective role in strengthening the spirituality and unity of the Church and the faithful. And again, One of the influential missions of the Holy Spirit in the destiny of the church should be to guide and assist the apostles and the church, especially by acknowledging the direct entry of Gentiles into the Christian convert.

Gnosticism is one of the most important and influential religious-mystical schools of thought in pre-and post-Christian centuries, which considers salvation on the basis of the divine wisdom, containing some of the deepest epistemological and philosophical ideas of that period in theology, cosmology, anthropology and eschatology. It refers to a number of ancient schools of thought, which has widely spread in Western Asia as a theological and mysteical discipline, under the influence of Hellenism or Greco-Hellenic, Hermetic, Platonic and Middle Platonic schools, as well as religions such as Judaism, Christianity and Zoroasterianism. Because of the widespread exchange of ideas and concepts, these religions and schools of thought had mutual influences on each other and displayed various common features in their beliefs. This paper examines the essence and origins of Gnostic worldview by assessing the main principles and foundations of the Hermetic, Platonic and Middle Platonic ideologies in various topics such as divinity,existential dualism,fate of the world,man and his relation to God,and descent along with return of the spirit, in order to uncover the similarities and differences of these systems of thought.