Advances in Cognitive Sciences
Year:2023 | Volume:25 | Issue:4|Papers Count:12

Introduction Children suffering from ASD, despite having verbal and linguistic abilities, often find it challenging to grasp synonyms and metaphorical language, which can lead to confusion and misunderstanding. They cannot successfully understand and use metaphorical expressions like normal children. The speech of these children shows that they understand and use grammar and language rules. However, they are unsuccessful in understanding metaphorical expressions and their use. For this purpose, the most basic metaphorical concepts were taught to these children with the help of collaborative story reading, and the efficiency of this knowledge was investigated in order to achieve better results. The present study is an attempt to answer the question of whether three- to five-year-old Persian-speaking children with the autistic disorder can understand and use embodied metaphors with the intervention of shared story-reading. Methods The present research method was interventional-analytical. This field research investigated Persian-speaking children from districts 1, 5, and 17 of Tehran, Iran. In this research, 20 Persian-speaking girls and boys aged three to five years, half of whom are ten girls and ten boys with an equal number of self-esteem disorders (with high functioning), were the statistical population of the research. Children were divided into two groups, control, and intervention, for better investigation. In shared story reading, 20 original stories were designed with metaphorical expressions taken from Shoja Razavi ey al’s research (2015) and ten disturbing agent stories (without metaphorical expressions). During ten face-to-face sessions, these stories were presented to healthy and independent children employing a talking doll. Children in the control group were only given disturbing stories, but children in the intervention group received 30 stories (20 main and ten disturbing stories) during ten story reading sessions. Before story reading, after story reading, and 40 days after the intervention, the children of the control and intervention groups asked for metaphorical expressions with double cards taken from Shoja Razavi’s research (2015). The physical fitness test was scored based on the answers to the double cards according to Shoja Razavi et al.’s scoring method (2015). Finally, children’s learning and acceptance level after the shared story-reading course is investigated. In the last stage, the statistical data were analyzed through non-parametric analysis, and the effect of repeated measurements was tested using the Chi2 test in SPSS-24 software. Results Three to 5-year-old healthy and independent children performed better in understanding the abstract concepts of embodied metaphors through the shared story-reading program. Furthermore, after the program’s implementation, the scores of high-performing self-retained children in the post-test were significantly better than in the pre-test. These findings show that shared story reading can increase thses children’s understanding of bodily metaphors. Conclusion The results of the tests show that the shared story-reading intervention positively affects the understanding of the metaphors of taste, smell, color, touch, shape, sound, movement, and speed in independent children. In general, the shared intervention can significantly improve the understanding of bodily metaphors in children aged 3-5 years. The results of three- to four-year-old children left alone in the group receiving the intervention of taste (72.5%), color (72.5%), smell (40%), shape (55%), size (45%), movement (70%), speed (55%) %), object (62.5%), sound (30%), and touch (55%) were reported. Results of four- to five-year-old children left alone in the group receiving the intervention, taste (80%), color (80%), smell (62.5%), shape (75%), size (70%), movement (75%), speed (65%), object (70%), sound (45%), and touch (65%) were reported. As it was observed, in addition to shared story reading, age is also seen as an effective factor in understanding embodied metaphorical expressions; in other words, a better understanding of metaphors requires more cognitive development at older ages. Ethical Consideration The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Institute for Cognitive Science Studies (ICSS) (IR.UT.IRICSS.REC.1401.043). Ethical considerations for this study included obtaining written consent from all participants and providing sufficient information to the parents about the research. We ensured compliance with ethical guidelines throughout the study. Authors’ contributions All three authors designed and prepared the study. The first author conducted data analysis and prepared the text of the article. The second author performed data collection and preparation, and the third, fourth, and fifth authors were responsible for the final review of the work. Funding This manuscript did not receive any funding. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank all participants participating in this study. Conflict of Interest The authors declare no potential conflict of interest

Introduction One of the most critical and fundamental issues about human mental health in the middle years of life and the elderly is Mild Cognitive Impairments (MCI), known as the precursor stages of Alzheimer’s disease. Hence, conducting scientific studies on people with MCI is vital due to the intermediate role of these problems and their pathological position as a prognosis for more severe cognitive impairments. The lack of research exploring key factors affecting the well-being of individuals with MCI, combined with the absence of conceptual and structural models in this domain, underscores the importance of this study. Given the rising life expectancy and the growing aging population, it critical to focus on enhancing the mental and cognitive-emotional abilities of middle-aged and elderly individuals. By identifying the influential elements across various aspects of MCI, clinicians can develop tailored rehabilitation programs and interventions that address the specific needs and bolster the weaknesses of those affected by cognitive deficits. Therefore, this research investigates the mediating role of ego strength in how attachment styles impact executive functions in individuals with MCI. Methods The present study was a cross-sectional correlational study. The statistical population includes all people over 40 years of age in Tehran, Iran, with mild pathological symptoms of cognitive impairments who were referred to the Alzheimer’s Association of Tehran in the second six months of 2022. In this study, 364 people were selected using the available sampling method. The criteria for entering the research include being 40 years old or older (being in the age group of the middle-aged and elderly), the presence of mild pathological diagnostic criteria (noted in the file of people referring to the Alzheimer’s Association of Iran by an expert), obtaining a score lower than 27 in the short mental status assessment scale, agreeing to participate in the study, responding to the scales and tools used, mastering the Persian language, and having a sixth-grade education or higher. The exclusion criteria of the research were being under 40 years old (given that 40 is considered the end of youth and the beginning of middle age), incomplete completion of research tools, the presence of severe physical or psychiatric disorders, suffering from Alzheimer’s disease or advanced dementia, and severe sensory-motor and physical disabilities. In this research, ethical considerations were taken into consideration, including the principle of secrecy and confidentiality, the consent of each person to participate in the research, and the possibility of withdrawing cooperation in case of unwillingness. The research tools were the Brief Mental Status Assessment Scale (MMSE), Attachment Styles Questionnaire (RASS), Adult Executive Function Scale (ADEXI), Ego Strength Questionnaire (PIES), and Cognitive Flexibility Scale (CFI). Pearson correlation, structural equation modeling, and SPSS version 24, and AMOS version 24 software were used for data analysis. Results The study results revealed the fit of the desired model. Furthermore, the direct effect of the variable of secure attachment to the variable of executive functions was insignificant (T=0.243, β=0.012). The direct effect of the variable of avoidant attachment on the variable of executive functions was insignificant (T=1.236, β=0.064). The direct effect of the anxious attachment variable on the executive functions variable was insignificant (T=-0.643, β=-0.036). The direct effect of the ego strength variable on the executive functions variable was insignificant (T=9.736, β=0.793). The direct effect of the secure attachment variable on the ego strength variable is significant (T=3.681, β=0.187). The direct effect of the avoidant attachment variable on the ego strength variable is significant (T=3.213, β=0.165). Additionally, the direct path effect of the anxious attachment variable to ego strength was significant (T=-6.592, β=-0.363). In addition, the obtained results indicate the indirect effect of the variable of secure attachment to the variable of executive functions through ego strength (β=0.138, P=0.002), the indirect effect of the variable of avoidant attachment to the variable of executive functions through ego strength means (β=0.204, P=0.002), and the indirect effect of the anxious attachment variable on the executive functions variable through ego strength were significant (β=-0.196, P=0.001). In addition, ego strength had a mediating role in the relationship between attachment styles and executive function symptoms. Conclusion According to the results of this study, seemingly, in addition to the existence of genetic and hereditary preparations in people suffering from cognitive impairments, attachment styles, specifically with the role that ego strength plays in this, can play parts in the beginning or progression of executive dysfunctions. The results of this study can be a point of hope for further studies in this field and help in formulating interventions to increase the ego capability of people with mild cognitive impairments whose executive functions are somehow impaired. Ethical Considerations Compliance with ethical guideline The present study observes ethical principles, including respect for the principle of confidentiality of participants, so that for confidentiality, participants were coded and their names were removed. Adequate information on how to conduct research was provided to all participants in the research, as well as their freedom to leave the research at any time. Authors’ contributions All authors contributed to topic selection, study design, and definition of concepts. Maryam Mohammadi collected and analyzed the data. The search of the research literature and the background of the research was done with the cooperation of all the authors. All authors discussed the results and participated in editing the final version of the article. Funding No financial support has been received from any organization for this research. Acknowledgments The authors thank and appreciate all the participants in the Alzheimer’s Association of Iran who participated and cooperated with us in collecting the findings of this research. In addition, this research is a part of the first author’s PhD dissertation, approved by the Department of Psychology of Kharazmi University with code 24258284 on 5.12.2021. Conflict of interest This study did not have any conflict of interest.

Introduction Gifted students, characterized by unique qualities, exhibit specific emotional, social, and educational needs, impacting their growth and well-being (1, 2). Challenges faced by gifted individuals include academic underachievement, future anxiety and solitude tendencies, reduced psychological well-being, and diminished life satisfaction and perceived stress levels (4-7). Life satisfaction, a cognitive evaluation of one’s quality of life, is linked to increased general health, academic success, and student self-regulation (10, 11). Future anxiety, characterized by uncertainty and fear of impending changes, affects gifted students, leading to avoidance of future planning and negative emotional indicators (10, 12). Contrary to the assumption that highly intelligent students experience less anxiety, research suggests gifted students face heightened fears of failure and future anxiety due to high expectations (13, 14). Stress is more prevalent among high school students, posing a significant public health challenge (16). For various reasons, gifted students experience higher stress levels, requiring further research (18). Various therapeutic methods have been explored, with cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) showing promise. Mahasneh et al. (2022) found that a cognitive-behavioral group counseling program reduced anxiety and future psychological stress in gifted students (22). This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral training on life satisfaction, future anxiety, and perceived stress in gifted students, addressing whether such training positively impacts their well-being. Methods The present study employed a quasi-experimental design with a pretest-posttest control group and follow-up. The statistical population included female-gifted Farzanegan high school students in Mazandaran for the academic year 2022-2023. The initial sample consisted of 187 students in the first and second grades of high school. Thirty participants were voluntarily selected based on inclusion and exclusion criteria, with 15 assigned to the experimental group and 15 to the control group through random allocation. Before the intervention, participants underwent a pretest measuring life satisfaction, future anxiety, and perceived stress. Subsequently, the experimental group received eight sessions of cognitive-behavioral training, while the control group received no intervention. Posttests were administered to both groups, and a follow-up test was conducted two months after the completion of the training sessions. The sample size for this research was determined using G*Power software based on an effect size of 0.25, an alpha level of 0.05, and a power of 0.95. Inclusion criteria involved a lack of appropriate psychological well-being based on low scores on the psychological well-being questionnaire, a typical family situation (living with both parents), and willingness to participate in the research. Exclusion criteria included abnormal family situations such as divorce and a conscious unwillingness to participate. The research instruments included the following measures: 1. Satisfaction with Life Questionnaire (1985) (24), 2. Future Anxiety Scale (1996) (26), and 3. Perceived Stress Questionnaire (1983) (28). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistical methods, including mean, standard deviation, frequency distribution table, repeated measures analysis of variance, and SPSS-22 software. Results The mean age of all participants was 15.67 years, with a standard deviation (1.41). In the experimental group, the mean (standard deviation) age was 15.60 (0.98), and in the control group, it was 15.33 (1.11). The minimum and maximum ages in both groups ranged from 14 to 17. All participants were engaged in education. Ten participants (66.67%) scored between 19 and 20, and 5 (33.33%) scored between 18 and 19. In the control group, nine participants (60%) scored between 19 and 20, and six (40%) scored between 18 and 19. Additionally, regarding family size, in the experimental group, seven participants (46.67%) had one child, seven participants (46.67%) had two children, and one participant (6.67%) had more than two children. In the control group, seven participants (46.67%) had one child, six participants (40%) had two children, and two participants (13.33%) had more than two children.  Furthermore, the results of the chi-square and independent samples t-test were reported, examining the homogeneity of the experimental and control groups. Since the chi-square value for family size, GPA, and age did not show statistical significance (P>0.05), it can be concluded that the two groups were homogenous in terms of family size, GPA, and age. The independent samples t-test for the age variable also revealed no significant difference between the mean ages of the experimental and control groups (P>0.05), confirming the homogeneity of the two groups. The results demonstrated that cognitive-behavioral training in the experimental group increased life satisfaction in the posttest and follow-up compared to the pretest (P<0.05). Additionally, the mean scores of future anxiety and perceived stress in the experimental group decreased from the pretest to the posttest and follow-up (P<0.05). Conclusion The present study concluded that the application of cognitive behavioral therapy to gifted students has a positive effect on life satisfaction. Similarly, this approach can help reduce future stress and anxiety and prepare students to face life’s challenges. In the educational environment, these results can help organizations and schools formulate their educational programs in such a way that they improve the psychological and social health of students at the same time, in addition to academic advancement. This intervention can be used as a comprehensive and appropriate tool in the process of educating students who are intelligent and sensitive to psychological issues. Moreover, it is recommended to use cognitive behavioral intervention concepts in textbooks such as thinking, psychology, and family management to increase the psychological well-being of gifted students. Ethical Considerations Compliance with ethical guidelines The current study was ethically approved with code IR.IAU.SARI.REC.1401.253 by the Ethics Committee of Biomedical Research at the Islamic Azad University, Sari Branch, and has the clinical trial registration IRCT20230306057632N1. The research process and information were explained to each participant, and they were assured that their information would be confidential and used solely for research purposes. The informed consent form was filled out and signed by the participants, who knew they were not required to participate in the research procedure and might withdraw at any time. Authors’ contributions Conceptualization, research design, and resource collection: Fatemeh Kamran and Ghodratollah Abbasi. Execution, writing, and drafting of the article: Fatemeh Kamran. Data analysis and processing: Ramazan Hassanzadeh. Revised and edited: Ghodratollah Abbasi. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the article. Funding No financial assistance has been received from any organization. Acknowledgments This research is based on the first author’s PhD dissertation. The researchers extend their gratitude and appreciation to all those who assisted in the completion of this study. Conflict of interest The authors declared that they had no conflict of interest in this study.

Introduction Learning disability is a type of neuro-developmental disability with biological origin. The basis of this disorder is at the level of cognition. Additionally, it is associated with symptoms such as reading incorrectly and with difficulty in words, understanding meanings, spelling problems, writing, calculating numbers, and understanding mathematics. This deficiency is affected by the person’s chronological age; it interferes with academic activities and work performance or the person’s daily life activities. People with specific learning disorders have defects in information processing, visual and auditory perception, memory, and attention. One of the problems of students with unique learning disorders is weakness in executive function. Executive function is a set of excellent abilities, including self-management, self-initiation, planning, cognitive flexibility, working memory, organization, dynamic perception of time, predicting the future, and solving problems. Besides, it helps the child in daily activities and learning assignments. A student’s academic success depends to a large extent on his ability to plan, organize, and prioritize information, regulate his attention, manipulate information in his working memory, and monitor his/her progress. Cognitive avoidance is another factor that students deal with and are not paid attention to in educational aspects. Therefore, the present study aimed to compare the effectiveness of brain exercise training and Captain’s Log computerized cognitive rehabilitation training on cognitive avoidance and executive functioning of students with learning disabilities. Methods The current research method was semi-experimental with a pre-test-post-test design and a control group with a three-month follow-up period. The statistical population of the research included all students aged 7 to 9 (first and third grades) with learning disabilities in the academic year 2022-2023 who were referred to learning disability centers located in Tonekabon city, Iran (78 students), of which 45 were in available based on the entry criteria. They were randomly selected into three groups: the first experiment (brain exercise training), the second experiment (Captain’s Log computerized rehabilitation), and the control group. The criteria for entering the research include written consent of the parents regarding the student’s participation in the research, the student’s interest in attending the meetings, attendance in the second and third grades, confirmation by the center’s specialist regarding the student’s learning disorder (7-9 years old), medium to high intelligence (90-110), lack of Suffering from other psychological disorders, not suffering from other disorders such as vision, hearing and movement defects, not receiving psychological and drug treatments during the last two months. Exit criteria also include failure to attend meetings for more than two meetings, refusal of parents or students to attend meetings, failure to attend more than two meetings, confusion of questionnaires, or unwillingness to complete them. The researcher committed to the participants in the control group in order to comply with the ethical principle of research justice. After the sessions end, interventions will be implemented for the applicants. The first group underwent brain exercise training during eight sessions of 60 minutes and one session per week, and the second group underwent Captain’s Log sessions during 15 sessions of 30 minutes twice a week; during this time, the control group was placed on the waiting list. The questionnaires used in the research were avoidance questionnaires. Saxon and Douglas (2008) and Gioia et al.’s (2000) cognitive performance questionnaire were administered after the post-test sessions and three months after the last follow-up session. Finally, the data were analyzed using the mixed variance analysis method and SPSS version 24 software. Results The research findings revealed a significant difference between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of thought suppression for the variable of thought suppression (F=30.94, df=2, P<0.01). The eta squared is 0.691. This showed that 69.1% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores in thought suppression were related to applying the independent variable. Besides, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log, group and control group) was significant (F=28.705, df=4, P<0.05). Similarly, for the variable of thought substitution (F=111.185, df=2, P<0.01), there was a significant difference between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of thought substitution (P<0.01). The eta squared is 0.726. This showed that 72.6% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test and follow-up scores in thought substitution was related to applying the independent variable. Correspondingly, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) was significant (F=36.593, df=4, P<0.05). Moreover, for the variable of distraction (F=90.744, df=2, P<0.01), there was a significant difference between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of distraction (P<0.01). The eta squared was 0.684. This showed that 68.4% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores in distraction was related to applying the independent variable. Likewise, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) was significant (F=23.806, df=4, P<0.05). Additionally, for the variable of avoidance of stimulating cues (F=99.187, df=2, P<0.01), a significant difference was found between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of avoidance of stimulating cues (P<0.01). The eta squared was 0.703. This showed that 70.3% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores in avoidance of stimulating cues is related to applying the independent variable. Furthermore, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) is significant (F=16.887, df=4, P<0.05). Besides, for the variable of changing mental imagery to verbal thoughts (F=78.269, df=2, P<0.01), a significant difference was observed between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of changing mental imagery to verbal thoughts (P<0.01). The eta squared was 0.651. This showed that 65.1% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores in changing mental imagery to verbal thoughts was related to applying the independent variable. In addition, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) was significant (F=25.597, df=4, P<0.05). There was a significant difference between the pre-test, post-test and follow-up scores of all components of executive function (P<0.01). Moreover, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) was significant in all cases. The results of the Bonferroni adjusted test for comparing the scores of cognitive avoidance components show that. According to the table above, a significant difference was fond between the pre-test and post-test scores in thought suppression, thought substitution, distraction, avoidance of stimulating cues, and changing mental imagery to verbal thoughts. Moreover, there was no significant difference between the post-test and follow-up scores. This indicated the persistence of the effectiveness of the intervention. The results of the Bonferroni adjusted test for comparing the scores of executive function components showed, as shown in the table above, a significant difference was found between the pre-test and post-test scores in inhibition, shifting attention, emotional control, initiation, working memory, planning, organization of materials and monitoring. No significant difference was observed between the post-test and follow-up scores. This indicated the persistence of the effectiveness of the intervention. Conclusion In general, according to the findings of the research, it can be said that brain exercise and activation of the brain structure probably increases the amount of attention and academic concentration and, as a result, increases academic success, and Captain’s Log software is attractive due to its innovation in the type of exercise. Furthermore, involving both cerebral hemispheres and the rewarding system of this software creates the motivation for the student to go to higher levels and to be able to use his executive and avoidance functions in a better way. If we can make the educational content of students with learning disabilities into software, it will help students to learn concepts, understand relationships, visual perception, learn numbers and classification, and self-reward system. Nowadays, children’s desire to use computer games has increased, and this approach can be helpful in learning. Ethical Considerations Compliance with ethical guidelines Before starting the study, informed consent was obtained from the parents of all students before starting the study. Besides, the participants were coded, and the principle of confidentiality was observed. Authors’ contributions All authors contributed equally to the preparation of this article. Funding In conducting this research, the researchers did not receive financial support from any organization. Acknowledgments The authors express their utmost gratitude to all the participating students and their parents, school staff, and the officials of Tonekabon Health Center who helped us collect the findings. Conflict of interest This article has no conflict of interest.

Introduction Parent-child biobehavioral synchrony is a parenting phenomenon demonstrating howancient survival-related structures have integrated into the complex networks of human brain over evolution. This phenomenon can be observed at a behavioral level (gaze, touch, and playing), at a physiological level (e.g., heartbeat rhythm), and at a neural level (brain synchrony). Inter-personal neural synchrony is defined as the similar and concurrent brain activation patternsbetween the two parties, correlated with behavioral synchrony and efficient relationship between the two. It has been proposed to be a result of the transition of verbal and non-verbal information between two people. The importance of parent-child neural synchrony is linked to the “predictability” aspect being a critical factor in child care. Frontotemporal regions of the brain, playing an essential role in socio-cognitive processing, are a potential neural region of synchrony during social interaction between two people. Brain-to-brain synchrony in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) area, such as the superior PFC and dorsolateral PFC, is related to various positive interpersonal outcomes such as successful cooperation, efficient communication, and perceived similarity. PFC region is also linked to executive functions, complex decision-making and efficient communication. These areas in the parent and child brain should synchronize so that parent and child can use mentalizing to predict each other’s intentions and preserve their focus on a common subject during a shared activity. It should be noted that studies show that communication between mothers and sons is different from that of mothers and daughters. The current study explored two main questions: 1) Is parent-child neural synchrony greater during cooperative play than individual play? 2) Does the rate of parent-child neural synchronization vary according to the child’s gender? Methods This study employs a two-factor quasi-experimental design to compare mother-child neural synchrony during individual and cooperative engagement in the Kohs block design task. The exclusion criteria were as follows: 1- A history of depression or anxiety in the mother 2- Intellectual disability, motor disability, or autism spectrum disabilities in the child 3- Premature at birth The tools utilized in this study are: 1) demographic information and 2) Kohs block design test, proposed by Kohs in 1920 as a measure of problem-solving ability in children between 5-15. It consists of 16 cubes, with each side of each cube being 5.2 centimeters. Four sides of the cubes are painted red, white, yellow, and blue; the two remaining sides are divided into two parts from the diameter, with one being painted blue and yellow and the other painted red and white. Participants are instructed to make various shapes with these cubes. 3) A 48-channel fNIRS instrument that uses infrared light to estimate hemodynamic activity in the brain cortex due to neural activity. It is one of the most common non-invasive methods for studying children. This study explored the synchrony between parent and child brain activity in the PFC because this area is linked with executive functions, complex decision-making, and effective communication. First, the experimenter contacted the participants, who informed them of the experiment procedure, the required time, and the fNIRS method. The participants were then invited to the lab, where the experimenter explained the Kohs block design task and experiment stages to them. After that, the mother and her child were guided into the lab and were sat on chairs facing each other. For the cooperative condition, the mother and child had 120 seconds to solve the task. After an 80-second resting time, a portable fiberglass is put between the mother and her child for the individual condition. All of these steps were done twice in a row for each mother-child dyad. Results Data preprocessing and analysis were executed using Pandas, Scipy, and Heartpy in Python. The process involved reading the data, eliminating artifacts—specifically heartbeats and breath signals—using a third-order bandpass filter with a frequency band of [0.2, 0.1], and subsequently determining the correlation between HbO concentration measured across channels using wavelet correlation coefficients. Following this, a Generalized Linear Mixed Model (GLMM) was employed in R to assess the statistical significance of the observed patterns. The GLMM was utilized to ascertain the significance of observations, considering conditions such as activities (cooperation and individual) and the child’s gender (boy and girl). The results are outlined as follows: Table 1. Observation for boys and girls in cooperation and individual condition Distance of Cooperation and Individual Condition Correlation Coefficient in Individual Condition Correlation Coefficient in Cooperation Condition Gender 0.0218 0.2320 0.2538 Boy 0.0215 0.2493 0.2709 Girl 0.0217 0.2406 0.2623 Both In the first GLMM, cooperative and individual conditions were considered predictor variables, with the correlation coefficient serving as the response variable in each case. The results indicate a substantial impact of this variable, supported by the notably low p-value observed in the z-estimation. In the second analysis, gender was introduced as a factor in predicting outcomes during both cooperative and individual conditions. The results indicate that, for boys, the low p-value observed in the z-estimation suggests a significant influence on the response variable. However, for girls, the non-significant p-value implies no apparent impact. Therefore, the findings are considered meaningful only for boys. Conclusion The key finding of this current research underscores that during cooperative activity, neural synchronization between mother and child was higher compared to individual activity. This discovery aligns with prior studies in the same domain. It appears that in a reciprocal relationship when both parties focus on a shared stimulus, they adapt their behavior based on predictions of the other party’s actions (5). Each mother-child pair tailors their behavior to align with the other’s actions, fostering cooperation and shared goal attainment (1). The second noteworthy discovery in this study reveals that In the context of cooperative activity, neural synchronization in mother-son pairs was significantly higher than in individual activity. The third finding is that, neural synchronization in mother-daughter pairs was higher during cooperative activity than in individual play; however, this difference is not statistically significant. Although the mother-daughter pairs exhibited higher neural synchronization in the cooperation condition compared to the individual condition, this difference is not statistically significant. This aligns with prior findings. This study focuses on how gender influences neural synchronization in both individual and cooperative conditions. The findings align with Baker et al.’ s discovery (15), indicating that, non-same-sex adults demonstrated higher consonance in cooperative conditions than their same-sex counterparts. This study, marking the first exploration of neurocognition in parenting and parent-child relationships in Iran, highlights the idea that when parents and children have neural harmony, it can promote cooperation and form the basis for cognitive and emotional development in Iranian society. Future research encompassing diverse groups such as children with autism or mothers with depression or anxiety, as well as varying age groups, holds promise for expanding understanding of this intricate field. Ethical Considerations Compliance with ethical guidelines Procedures in this study were approved by the Ethics in Research Committee at the Institute for Cognitive Science Studies (ID: IR.UT.IRICSS.REC.1401.001). Informed consent forms were provided to the mothers, who filled them on behalf of themselves and their children (who were under the age of 18). Participation in the study was voluntary, and mothers and children could decide to opt out of the study at any point during the procedures without any negative consequences. The participants’ names and demographic information are kept confidential. The authors are committed to providing the participants with the experimental data upon their request. Authors’ Contributions Tahere Mahdavi Haji: Studying the existing literature, coming up with the preliminary study design, sampling, data collection, and providing the first draft of the paper. Roghayeh Farajialamooti: Analyzing the fNIRS signals and other data analyses. Alireza Moradi: Providing guidance on every step of the study, editing the paper, and being the corresponding author. Mir Mohsen Pedram: Providing technical counsel for data analysis and editing of the existing paper. Funding No established organization had financially supported this study. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the technicians and authorities at the National Brain Mapping Laboratory (NBML) for their earnest cooperation. Conflict of Interests The authors declared that they have no competing interests.

Introduction Addiction is recognized as a serious societal problem with potentially severe and undesirable consequences, including social and health problems. Individuals addicted to drugs such as opioids experience impaired natural brain function, leading to compromised executive functions, ultimately affecting their quality of life and interpersonal and occupational capabilities. In addition, ample evidence indicates that opioid consumption induces changes in oxidative stress levels, typically resulting in negative alterations and an exacerbation of oxidative stress in the body. Methadone and buprenorphine are widely used as maintenance treatments for opioids in treatment centers. Methadone, a full μ-opioid receptor agonist, is the most widely used substitution treatment in Europe and the United States, as well as in Iran, and its effectiveness in the reduction of drug-associated harm and improvement of abstinence rate is clearly proven. Buprenorphine, a partial μ-receptor agonist and k-receptor antagonist, compared to methadone, causes less analgesia due to being a partial agonist of μ receptor. Several lines of evidence have shown the impact of methadone and buprenorphine on oxidative stress levels. In addition, long-term use of opioids can affect neuronal functions and neural connectivity and subsequently affect normal brain functioning and cognitive functions, including executive functions, learning, memory, and attention. Impairment in cognitive function can significantly affect the routine daily life of individuals. Accordingly, this study aimed to investigate executive functions and inflammatory factors, including malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and ferritin patients undergoing maintenance treatment with methadone and buprenorphine, and compare them with healthy individuals. Methods This cross-sectional study investigated oxidative/antioxidant activity, inflammatory factors, and cognitive ‎functions in patients under maintenance treatment and healthy control participants. The participants were selected from individuals actively pursuing addiction treatment in South Khorasan, Iran. Participants were categorized into three distinct groups, each comprising 30 members. The groups included the buprenorphine treatment group, the methadone treatment group, and a control group consisting of healthy, demographically matched individuals. All groups were matched based on age, sex, and education level. The methadone and buprenorphine groups had been under treatment for at least 12 months, and healthy subjects ‎had no history of drug use. Executive function was measured using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). The WCST is a gold standard instrument used to assess executive functions. The test requires respondents to match a total of 128 response cards to one of four key cards representing different perceptual sorting dimensions. Once respondents find the correct sorting rule, they need to ignore other sorting dimensions and follow this rule across other changing stimuli. After correctly matching ten cards in a row, the sorting criterion shifts to a new dimension without warning, prompting participants to adapt by devising a fresh sorting strategy. Furthermore, to delve into the biochemical aspects associated with addiction treatment, blood samples were systematically collected for the comprehensive evaluation of serum levels. In brief, for each participant, a 10 ml blood sample was collected from a forearm vein. Each blood sample was drawn after neuropsychological assessments. The serum samples were immediately separated by centrifugation at 3000 g for 10 min and were stored at -80 °C for further analysis. The concentrations of MDA, an indicator of oxidative stress, and TAC were measured. Additionally, the study examined the serum levels of ferritin, a marker of inflammatory processes. The thorough analysis of these biochemical markers aimed to provide insights into the potential impact of buprenorphine and methadone treatments on oxidative stress and inflammatory pathways. Results The WCST results reveal that healthy participants significantly outperformed the other groups in numerous executive function subscales. Additionally, individuals under buprenorphine treatment demonstrated better performance compared to those under methadone treatment, although these improvements were not statistically significant in some cases. The methadone treatment group exhibited the weakest performance on all subscales compared to healthy and buprenorphine groups. The analysis of inflammatory factors showed variations in serum ferritin levels among the three groups, with higher levels in the healthy and methadone groups compared to the buprenorphine treatment group. The assessment of oxidative stress factors (MDA and TAC) also revealed differences among the study groups. Serum MDA levels were significantly higher in the buprenorphine treatment group compared to both the healthy and methadone treatment groups. Furthermore, serum MDA levels in the methadone treatment group were significantly higher than in the healthy group. Serum TAC levels were significantly higher in methadone treatment groups compared to the buprenorphine treatment group. Additionally, the healthy group exhibited significantly higher serum TAC levels than the buprenorphine treatment group. Conclusion The current research suggests that although both methadone and buprenorphine are associated with heightened oxidative stress, inflammation, compromised antioxidant defenses, and cognitive impairments, these adverse effects are significantly less severe than those linked to morphine and heroin use.  Considering the obtained results and comparing them, it can be generally stated that long-term methadone use elevates inflammation in the body. Moreover, the measurement of lipid oxidation indicates that individuals receiving buprenorphine alternative treatment exhibit higher oxidation levels, and the measurement of TAC, representing antioxidant capacity, is significantly lower in the buprenorphine group compared to methadone. However, oxidative stress levels in all patients were worse than those in healthy individuals. Additionally, the WCST and executive functions results revealed that both patient groups performed poorly compared to healthy individuals. Among the methadone and buprenorphine groups, individuals under buprenorphine treatment exhibited better performance in comparison to those under methadone treatment. However, notably, due to the higher cost of buprenorphine, individuals under buprenorphine treatment likely had a higher quality of life, which could impact their executive functions. It is suggested that oxidative stress can affect normal brain activity and, consequently, cognitive functions. However, concomitant antioxidant administration with buprenorphine or methadone can potentially enhance their beneficial action by regulating blood redox status. Ethical considerations Compliance with ethical guidelines Participants entered the study with informed consent and were assured that all information would remain confidential and only be used for research purposes. Ethical principles were rigorously adhered to throughout all stages of the research, and the study received ethical approval from the Ethics Committee of the Islamic Azad University under the code IR.IAU.PS.REC.1397.387. Authors’ contributions Rahele Zhiani: selecting the topic, defining concepts, and designing the study. Alireza Motavalizadehkakhky: conducted source search and database review. Reza Arezoomandan: gathering information. Jamshid Mehrzad: carried out data analysis. Mohammad Arezoomandan: writing and preparation of the initial draft. All authors reviewed the obtained results and contributed to editing the article’s final version. Funding This manuscript did not receive any funding. Acknowledgments The article’s authors consider it necessary to express their sincere appreciation to all the staff and personnel of addiction treatment centers in Qaen City and precious patients for helping to carry out this project. Conflict of interest This article has no conflict of interest.

Introduction Adolescence is a critical period of development, transitioning from childhood to adulthood. During this period, extensive neural plasticity occurs in the central nervous system. These changes aim to establish individual independence and enhance cognitive capacity. Significant neurochemical changes also occur in the brain during adolescence. For example, the brain’s dopaminergic system is fundamentally reorganized, possibly associated with associative learning and motivational behaviors. In addition, dopamine receptors in both cortical and subcortical areas reach their highest levels during adolescence. Furthermore, higher cortical mechanisms do not fully control the heightened activity of the limbic system in adolescence. These distinct developmental pathways in different regions of the brain during adolescence may lead to increased risk-taking behaviors in adolescents and their engagement in addictive behaviors. Exposure to drugs at different stages of development can lead to lasting changes in the structure and function of the brain. However, it is important to note that mature brain systems can compensate for synaptic changes caused by drugs, whereas developing brain systems may incorporate these changes, leading to a stable event in cellular response. Research has explored morphine’s significant opioid impact on memory and learning in adults, yet few studies have examined the effects of acute morphine exposure on anxiety-like behaviors during adolescence. In our previous studies, we have examined the effects of short-term and long-term exposure to opioids during adolescence on learning and memory with behavioral and electrophysiological approaches up to adulthood. In addition, this study intend to investigate the effects of acute morphine exposure during adolescence on locomotor activity and anxiety-like behaviors from adolescence to adulthood. Methods In this study, adult male Wistar rats were used. The animals were housed under standard conditions with a 12-hour light/dark cycle and ad libitum access to food and water at 23±2°C. All experiments were conducted following ethical principles for working with laboratory animals and were approved by the Ethics Committee of the Research at Tarbiat Modares University with the ethical code (IR.Modares.REC.1398.052). Morphine exposure during adolescence Adolescent male Wistar rats were assigned to the saline and morphine groups to investigate the effects of morphine exposure. In the morphine group, rats were injected subcutaneously (s.c.) with 2.5 mg/kg of morphine sulphate (Temad, Iran) on postnatal day 31. Then, behavioral studies were conducted from adolescence to adulthood, measuring the animal’s locomotor activity and anxiety-like behaviors. The timeline related to this type of morphine exposure and the behavioral tests are shown in Figure 1. Figure 1. Timeline of behavioral experiments in the group exposed to acute morphine during adolescence. Behavioral tests Open field test The study focused on the locomotor activity of rodents using an Open Field Test (OFT). The apparatus consisted of a square enclosed area (50×50 cm) with a height of 30 cm and virtual lines marked on it. Locomotor activity was measured by evaluating the distance traveled during the 5 minutes. Additionally, the time of the animal’s presence in the center of the open field was measured to indicate anxiety-like behavior. Elevated plus maze test An elevated plus maze was used to evaluate the anxiety-like behavior of the animal. In this test, rats were allowed to freely explore the device, including two open arms (38×5 cm) and two closed arms (38×5×15 cm) with a central junction (5×5 cm) for 10 minutes. The time spent in open arms and the number of entries into open and closed arms were measured. The entrance was counted whenever the animal entered the arm with all four paws. An inverse relationship was observed between increased entry into open arms and time spent in open arms with anxiety-like behavior, and vice versa. Investigating the effects of acute morphine exposure during adolescence on locomotor activity and anxiety-like behavior in the open field test As shown in Figure 2a, no significant difference in the traveled distance was found between the group exposed to the acute morphine pattern and the saline group during four weeks (P>0.05). These data showed that acute morphine consumption in adolescence did not have a significant effect on the locomotor activity of animals from adolescence to adulthood. Another parameter measured in the open field test was the duration of being in the center of the open field (Figure 2b). In the first week after the morphine injection, the time of presence in the center of the open field in the morphine group showed a significant increase (P=0.0499) compared to the control group. However, during the following weeks, the group exposed to acute morphine compared to the control group did not have a significant difference in terms of the duration of their stay at the open field center (P>0.05). Figure 2. The effects of acute morphine exposure during adolescence on locomotor activity and anxiety-like behavior in the open field test Investigating the effects of morphine consumption with an acute exposure pattern during adolescence on anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze test This study analyzed three indicators of the time spent in the open arms and the number of entries into the open and closed arms as indicators of anxiety-like behavior to measure anxiety-like behaviors in the elevated plus maze. Two indicators of the time spent in the open arms (P=0.0368) and the number of entries to the open arms (P=0.0483) during the first week after morphine injection were significantly higher in the morphine group compared to the saline group. Nevertheless, the two groups had no significant difference in the following weeks (Figure 3a and b). These data showed that the group exposed to morphine with an acute pattern during adolescence had an anti-anxiety behavior pattern during the first week after morphine injection. Correspondingly, the data in Figure 3c showed no significant difference in the number of entries to the closed arms between the morphine and saline groups four weeks after receiving morphine (P>0.05). Figure 3. The effects of morphine exposure during adolescence on anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze test Conclusion In summary, the importance of these findings should be considered in the context of the importance of adolescence as a sensitive period of brain growth and development affected by environmental factors such as substance abuse. Finally, according to the results of the present study, future studies are needed to clarify the nature of the emotional experience of adolescents by examining receptors, signaling cascades, molecules, and brain structures involved in behavioral and cellular changes after exposure to morphine in adolescents. Ultimately, at the level of human societies, educational systems should pay special attention to teenagers and think of appropriate management programs to meet the psychological needs of this sensitive segment of society. Ethical Considerations Compliance with ethical guidelines All experiments on animals complied with the ethical principles of working with laboratory animals approved by the Ethics Committee in Research of Tarbiat Modares University of Medical Sciences with a code of ethics (IR.Modares.REC.1398.052). Authors’ contributions Fatemeh Khani: Conducting experiments, analyzing data, and writing the manuscript. Ali Pourmotabbed: Edited the manuscript and consulted during the research. Hossein Azizi:  Designed, supervised, and guided during the implementation of the research and final review of the manuscript. Funding This article is financially supported by the Faculty of Medical Sciences of Tarbiat Modares University. Acknowledgments The presenters are grateful to the Faculty of Medical Sciences of Tarbiat Modares University and the Faculty of Medicine of Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences. Conflict of interest The authors of this article have no conflict of interest.

Introduction N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors hold profound importance in shaping an individual’s mental and physical health. These receptors, forming heterotetrametric complexes, play a pivotal role in synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. Dysfunction in NMDA receptors has been associated with a spectrum of neurological and psychiatric disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease, schizophrenia, depression, and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The intricate regulatory mechanisms of these receptors, involving subunit diversity, allow for fine-tuning of synaptic transmission. Therapeutically, drugs targeting NMDA receptors, such as ketamine for depression, underscore their crucial role in mental health. Ongoing research explores their involvement in physical health, with potential implications for conditions like ADHD. Understanding and modulating NMDA receptor function emerge as critical endeavors for promoting comprehensive well-being, highlighting the intricate interplay between molecular processes and overall health outcomes. In this context, the present research aims to unravel the specific interplay between NMDA receptor subunits NR1 and NR2 and ADHD. It aims to elucidate the potential role of NR1 and NR2 receptors in the pathophysiology of ADHD and contribute valuable insights that may pave the way for more targeted therapeutic interventions in ADHD and potentially other neuropsychiatric disorders. Methods The study involved 70 male participants aged 6 to 15 years, comprising 50 individuals diagnosed with mixed ADHD and 20 age-matched healthy controls. Participants meeting DSM-IV criteria for mixed ADHD were recruited from the rehabilitation clinics in Tehran, Iran. Inclusion criteria specified ages between 6 and 15 years. Exclusively male participants were selected to minimize potential gender-related confounding factors. Additionally, individuals with a history of neurological or neuropsychological problems and severe physical illness were excluded from the research. Healthy controls were recruited through advertisements targeting children in some schools, screened, and matched for age and gender. ADHD participants underwent a comprehensive diagnostic assessment conducted by an expert clinician involving pre-assessment questionnaires, semi-structured interviews aligned with DSM-5 criteria, and administration of the K-SADS-PL and IVA2 tests for enhanced diagnostic validity. The K-SADS-PL screening interview focused on ADHD symptoms, with responses rated on a scale. The IVA2 assessed attention and impulsivity through responses to auditory and visual stimuli and total attention quotient. Blood samples drawn without specific timing or fasting requirements were collected from both study and control groups, processed, and stored at -80°C. Serum samples were later used to quantify NR1 and NR2 receptor expression through western blotting, with fluorescence visualization and computer-assisted analysis software for relative abundance determination. All analyses were performed using SPSS software version 26. Results The investigation revealed noteworthy distinctions in the mean expression levels of NR1 and NR2 receptors between the experimental group (ADHD) and the healthy control group. Specifically, the mean expression of NR1 receptors in the ADHD group was found to be 97.7, significantly lower than the corresponding mean expression of 124.25 observed in the healthy control group, as indicated by the p-value of P<0.00001, denoting statistical significance at P<0.05. Similarly, the mean expression of NR2 receptors in the ADHD group, quantified at 154.6, demonstrated a significant variance from the mean expression of 173.25 in the healthy control group, corroborated by a p-value of P<.00001, thereby establishing statistical significance at P<0.05. These findings underscore the substantial disparities in the expression profiles of NMDA glutamate receptors in individuals with ADHD compared to their neurotypical counterparts, providing valuable insights into the molecular underpinnings of this neurodevelopmental disorder. The decrease in the expression of these proteins in the ADHD group causes a decrease in cognitive symptoms, including attention quotient, in this group compared to healthy people. Conclusion The current study revealed a significant link between ADHD and abnormal expression of NMDA glutamate receptors, particularly the NR1 and NR2 subunits, in the blood plasma of individuals with ADHD compared to healthy controls. This suggests a potential role for NMDA receptors in ADHD’s pathophysiology, implying that impaired NMDA receptor function may contribute to the disorder’s development. Dysfunctional NMDA receptors can impact dopamine and epinephrine levels in the brain, influencing ADHD symptoms. Notably, disruptions in NMDA receptors can lead to excessive and insufficient dopamine levels, contributing to hyperactivity, impulsivity, attention regulation difficulties, motivation, and focus issues. The findings highlight the need for a more comprehensive understanding of ADHD’s neurobiological foundations and suggest potential therapeutic avenues targeting NMDA receptor function. Additionally, the study contributes to personalized medicine in ADHD and has broader implications for understanding brain function in neuropsychiatric disorders influenced by glutamatergic signalling, offering insights that deepen our comprehension of ADHD, provide therapeutic potential, and contribute to a broader understanding of brain function in neuropsychiatric contexts. Ethical consideration Compliance with ethical guidelines This article is extracted from the PhD dissertation with the approval ID IR.IUMS.REC.1398.1328. The research demonstrates adherence to ethical principles by ensuring adequate information provision, obtaining consent from participants, and upholding the principle of confidentiality concerning participants’ information. Only researchers were allowed to access the data, and all digital files were password-protected. All efforts were made to minimize any possible harm to the participants. The research protocol was designed to eliminate any physical, psychological, or emotional harm. Participants were not exposed to any additional stress or discomfort during the study. The research process allowed participants the freedom to withdraw from the study at any point, respecting their autonomy and commitment to ethical research practices. Authors’ contribution In this research, Mohammad Reza Zarrindast contributed to developing the initial idea and assisted with designing the study method and defining the hypothesis. Peyman Hassani Abharian assisted with diagnostic tests for cognitive features. Solmaz Khalifeh supervised the western blotting method, and Mohammad Nasehi contributed to the scientific discussion on data interpretation, and source support, and editing of the final draft. Funding The research was conducted without external financial support or funding. The first author provided all financial costs. Acknowledgments The authors express their gratitude to all the participants and people who facilitated the implementation of this research. Conflict of interest The authors declare that the research was conducted without any relationships that could potentially create a conflict of interest.

Introduction Perceptual decision-making is a pivotal aspect of our daily lives, as various decision-making processes involve accumulating evidence from sensory perception, personal preferences, social cues, and other sources. In the realm of social psychology, the impact of social information on decision-making is a subject of interest, studied under the umbrella of social influence. Social influence involves changes in cognition, attitudes, or behavior due to external factors (1), and conformity refers to the frequency with which individuals mimic social cues, regardless of their accuracy. Social influence arises from two primary motivations: "Informational influence", where individuals seek group-derived information because they believe it to be more accurate, and "Normative influence", driven by the desire to align with group norms (2, 3). Well-designed experiments are essential to draw meaningful conclusions and disentangle normative and informational influences. Classic conformity studies have highlighted the challenges associated with both types of social influence. It is necessary to distinguish between them to ensure the interpretation of research findings, obstructing a comprehensive understanding of decision-making in social contexts. This research focuses on minimizing the factors producing normative effects and investigating the impact of informational social influence on decision-making when social information is presented after distinct sensory cues. The present study aimed  to understand how last-minute social information may impact the sensory gathering process and, subsequently, influence decision-making. Methods The experimental task in this study comprised six stages, with five involving extensive training, followed by the main task. The main experiment was divided into four sessions, each consisting of one block. In this psychophysical task, participants were exposed to two 120-millisecond sensory stimuli originating from Random Dot Motion (RDM), featuring different degrees of evidence strength and motion direction. Afterward, a graphical cue was displayed, using shapes and colors familiar to participants from their training. Notably, this graphical cue was solely provided to indicate the other participants’ responses, intentionally devoid of any information regarding the identity of the respondents, to minimize normative influence. They were informed that these cues represented responses from other participants who had encountered the same RDMs. However, the responses were not from actual participants; instead, the researchers generated them using a signal detection model. To create the social data, the researchers relied on participant behavior in sensory trials as a foundation. They employed the model to generate responses from four participants, each with distinct performance and confidence levels. This study employed the Generalized Drift Diffusion Model (GDDM) to provide a flexible framework for decision-making research. GDDM allows for a broad range of experimental designs and empirical hypotheses, accommodating customized distributions for parameters such as starting position, decision threshold, and drift rate (4). This flexibility enhances our ability to investigate the influence of social information on decision processes. The present analysis required the development of customized parameters due to the unique experimental conditions, including the presentation of discrete evidence and the incorporation of social information. The model used in this study propose that the drift rate, reflecting the speed of information uptake, remains consistent throughout each trial, each consisting of two pulses. However, its effect varies between pulses depending on their coherence levels. Specifically, This research derive this measure of drift rate from the initial pulse of information and compute it separately for each pulse based on its coherence level. In this manner, the researchers manage the transition between discrete pulses of information. By adopting this definition of the starting point as the ratio of the preference at time 0 to the size of the decision boundary (5) and considering that the starting point shifts to favor a more frequent or highly rewarded response when trials are manipulated (6, 7), it becomes possible to apply it to social cues. This accounts for the occurrence of a bias or preference in evidence accumulation toward social cues. However,  extending its timing to presentinga social cue is essential. By integrating this concept into the model, this study can effectively explain how social cues influence decision bias. The task is run using the Psychtoolbox in MATLAB, and behavioral analysis takes place within MATLAB. Statistical tests are carried out using JASP, and the GDDM model is executed through the PyDDM, a drift-diffusion modeling framework for Python. Results Nine participants successfully completed all tasks. During the training phase, an average of 2100 data points were collected from each participant, and in the main test phase, 7200 trials were recorded. Additionally, 5400 trials were recorded in the isolated task. Participants notably increased their accuracy in group tasks compared to solo tasks, mainly when their partners were more precise.  However, the overall mean accuracy of participants remained significantly lower than that of their partners. The extent of adapting to social cues is another crucial factor in participant behavior. As anticipated, participants exhibited greater conformity with more accurate partners. Statistical tests revealed a significant positive correlation between the influence of social partners. It was found to be significant only when comparing high-accuracy and low-accuracy partners to validate the significance of conformity behavior and identify differences between conditions. No significant difference in conformity was observed between partners with high-and low-confidence social information. The obtained findings, as modeled through DDM, reveal significant differences in crucial decision-making parameters between the isolated phase and the social task. Specifically, when comparing parameters such as the drift rate (the pace of evidence accumulation), the decision threshold (the determiner of decision endpoints), and the starting point (illustrating how social information complements sensory evidence), the researchers observed an increase in the decision threshold and starting point, and a decrease in the drift rate in the social task compared to the isolated task. Further investigation into variations among partners reveals that the disparity in accuracy improvement between high and low-accuracy partners when social information is introduced at the final stage leads to an increase in the starting point. Conclusion This study delves into the intricate dynamics of decision-making in social contexts, specifically focusing  on the impact of social information presented after distinct sensory cues. The pursuit of understanding how last-minute social information affects the sensory gathering process and, consequently, influences decision-making has unveiled valuable insights into the multifaceted world of social influence on human behavior. The obtained results shed light on the role of social cues in enhancing decision accuracy. Participants exhibited a significant improvement in accuracy when operating in social blocks as opposed to isolated ones, primarily when their partners exhibited higher accuracy. Nevertheless, the mean accuracy of participants remained persistently lower than that of their high-accuracy partners, highlighting the unique complexities involved in integrating social information into perceptual decision-making. Furthermore, the current study unveiled the pivotal influence of conformity on participant behavior. Conformity was more pronounced when participants interacted with partners who demonstrated higher accuracy. This not only provides evidence of the impact of informational social influence but also illustrates the nature of conformity, revealing that individuals may adapt to the cues of more accurate peers. The present study investigates the influence of both visual and social cues on decision-making, seeking to bridge the gap between theoretical models and real-life social interactions. Understanding the interplay between perception, cognition, and social behavior during decision-making enhances our ability to model and predict decision processes in various social domains. Ethical Considerations Compliance with ethical guidelines This research complied approved experimental protocols by the Ethics Committee of the Iran University of Medical Science (Approval ID: IE392343). All participants provided written informed consent, assuring the collected data’s confidentiality and scientific purpose-bound use. Participants were given the option to withdraw from the experiment at any stage. Authors’ contributions Hoora Tajrishi: Conceptualization, data collection, analysis, visualization, writing original draft, review, and editing. Sajjad Zabbah: Conceptualization, supervision, writing reviews, and editing. Javad Hatami: Supervision, writing reviews, and editing. Reza Ebrahimpour: Conceptualization, supervision, writing reviews, and editing. Funding This study was funded by the  Cognitive Sciences & Technologies Council, Iran (9970). Acknowledgments The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all the participants for their time and cooperation, without which this research would not have been achievable. The authors are also thankful to their colleagues who generously offered their assistance and valuable input, especially during the early stages of task development and debugging. Conflicts of interest The authors declared no conflicts of interest.

Introduction Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive disease of the mental powers commonly seen in the elderly. Significant symptoms of this disease are memory loss, judgment, and essential behavioral changes in the person. The disease results in the loss of synapses of neurons in some areas of the brain, the necrosis of brain cells in different areas of the nervous system, the formation of spherical protein structures called aging plaques outside neurons in some areas of the brain, and fibrous protein structures called coils. The helix is ​​identified in the cell body of neurons )1(. The prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease is on the rise. The expenses associated with treating, caring for, and nursing individuals with this condition are substantial and challenging.)2(. This study’s main purpose and motivation was to design and present a method for diagnosing Alzheimer’s disease. Medical image processing plays a crucial role in identifying severe Alzheimer’s disease, as it enables the determination of disease presence and the assessment of similarity between medical images. Additionally, it allows for examining the rate at which the disease progresses. If this disease is not identified in time, new and up-to-date treatment methods will not work. The solution is to accurately identify the mechanism of this disease and its effect on medical images, which is a challengingtask due to the dynamic nature of the brain and the complex nature of this disease. Methods      This study recruited forty volunteers to record medical images in healthy, mild, and severe groups. The number of people in the healthy group is 19, in the mild group is 11, and in the severe group is ten. Furthermore, 128 image slides were prepared for each candidate. In preparing the images, the MRI machine should have at least 3 Tesla, and the thickness of the slices is 3 mm. The number of slices is 128 in order to see acceptable images to examine the lesions of aging coils and spiral plaques )11(. The database of the Tehran Imaging Center has been prepared. The appropriate image segmentation, mask filter to remove noise and sharp filter to detect the edge in the image was used) 12(. All the data was fed to an augmentation layer before feeding into the neural network. Only the zooming and flipping were selected for augmentation. Although CT scans are still used regularly for diagnostic evaluation and to study the relationship between the brain and the subject's behavior, they are mostly used when MRI is prohibited because MRI is now the method of choice for evaluating patients. In patients diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease, it is evident that the inner part of the temporal loop undergoes atrophy, which is associated with nerve lesions.)13(. In most Alzheimer’s patients, atrophy of the inner part of the temporal lobe is detected in patients compared with healthy individuals up to several years before the onset of clinical signs of cognitive impairment. In patients with Alzheimer’s, hippocampal atrophy occurswith a reduction of 10 to 50% and para hippocampus with up to 40% compared to healthy individuals. Clinically, a reduction in hippocampal volume of up to 25% causes mild Alzheimer’s disease. In Alzheimer’s disease, atrophy of the internal temporal lobe and parietal lobe is seen (14). Due to the large number of conditions that can lead to the degeneration of higher structures of the brain, atrophy of the cerebral cortex is one of the most studied types. These causes include a wide range of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, whose primaryeffect is the destruction of nerve cells and the consequent loss of brain mass (15). Results The Elman neural network is used by features extracted from MRI images such as cerebrospinal fluid, white and gray matter volume, atrophy, and asymmetry. As the network architecture was not complex, the input data after augmentation was enough for training the network. The results were the most accurate when these combined features were used as inputs for the neural network. The actual positive rate of the results by spinal cord fluid in healthy individuals was 79.9% in mild Alzheimer’s patients, 83.2%, and in severe Alzheimer’s patients, 91%. The true positive rate of the results by the volume of gray matter in healthy individuals was 81.8% in mild Alzheimer’s patients, 84.9%, and in severe Alzheimer’s patients, 92%. The actualpositive rate of the results by white matter volume characteristic in healthy individuals was 82% in mild Alzheimer’s patients 86.2% and in severe Alzheimer’s patients 93%. The results’ actual positive rate by the temporal lobe atrophy characteristic in healthy individuals was 83.3% in mild Alzheimer’s patients, 87.8%, and in severe Alzheimer’s patients, 94.1%. The valid positive rate of the results by asymmetry characteristic in healthy individuals was 80.9% in mild Alzheimer’s patients, 85%, and in severe Alzheimer’s patients, 89.6%. Finally, the valid positive rate of the results by combining the features in healthy individuals was 82.5% in mild Alzheimer’s patients, 86.5%, and in severe Alzheimer’s patients, 94.5%. The highest accuracy of progeny in the group of severe Alzheimer’s patients and the most appropriate feature among the features of MRI images was the degree of medial temporal lobe atrophy. The highest accuracy of prognostication in the group of patients with severe Alzheimer’s and the most suitable feature among the features of MRI images was the amount of atrophy of the medial temporal lobe. Figure 2 shows the accuracy of the neural network results for three groups. Figure 2. Accuracy of Elman neural network results by MRI image feature Conclusion Initially, mask and sharp filters were used to extract the high and low-frequencycomponents of noise in order to extract the appropriate feature and accuracy of the classifier performance. The thickness of the slices in this study in MRI images is considered 4 mm, and the thickness between 0.8 and 4 mm is used to diagnose mild Alzheimer’s disease. On the other hand, the MRI device in this study was 3 Tesla. At least 1.5 to 3 Tesla devices should be used to observe the lesions of aging coils and spiral plaques and to diagnose Alzheimer’s disease. Based on choroidal dislocation, temporal width, and hippocampal height in MRI images, the mean of temporal lobe atrophy in individuals is classified from zero, meaning a healthy condition, to grade 4 with severe cognitive deficits. Using MRI images to diagnose severe Alzheimer’s disease can be an effective way. The selection of appropriate features in these images, such as temporomandibular atrophy, white matter volume, gray matter volume, cerebrospinal fluid, and asymmetry, is appropriate to distinguish healthy individuals from mild and severe. By combining the appropriate features, the precision of neural network outcomes is enhanced. As Alzheimer’s disease advances to severe stages, these features become more distinguishable in comparison to the healthy group and individuals with mild symptoms. This is because, in the initial phases of Alzheimer’s disease, there are minimal atrophy and asymmetry alterations, with no significant variations in white and gray matter volume, as well as cerebrospinal fluid. Ethical Considerations Compliance with ethical guidelines All the subjects received information about the research. They were assured that all information would remain confidential and only be used for research purposes. Furthermore, the patients were assured that if they did not want to participate in the research, it would not lead to the termination of medical services in that center. In order to respect privacy, the details of the subjects were not recorded. Informed consent was obtained from the participants prior to conducting the research, and the researchers observed ethical considerations during the study. Notably, this research has an ethics code with the IR.IMAMREZA.REC.1402.009 at the Imam Reza International University. Authors’ contributions All authors contributed to the study’s conception and design. Elias Mazrooei Rad, Sayyed Majid Mazinani, and Hadi Akbari performed material preparation, data collection, and analysis. Elias Mazrooei Rad wrote the first draft of the manuscript, and all authors commented on previous versions. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Funding No financial assistance has been received from any organization. Acknowledgments The authors express their gratitude to Kavian Ghandehari for her cooperation with the patients in registering the signal. Conflict of interest The authors declared no conflict of interest.

Introduction Cognitive poetics used as a literary theory for reading literature and generalizes cognitive principles to poetry, and it should be able to answer the questions raised in literary theories, including the influence of gender on texts (2). Considering language as an embodied and experimental concept can open the way for the gender-based study of literary works with a cognitive poetics approach (3) mbodiment transcends biology, encompassing the intricate interplay between the body and personality. It is reflected across a spectrum of topics, notably gender (5). Later studies, relying on the fact that no clear boundary exists between sex and gender, have more or less distanced themselves from assuming these concepts as independent and dual and have focused on their interactive relationship (9). Power relations in language and gender studies are explored using critical discourse analysis (11). The integration of cognitive poetics with critical discourse analysis has been done in this research in order to optimize it for investigating the representation of gender in poetry. “Another Birthday” by Forough Farrokhzad and “Aida in the Mirror” by Ahmed Shamlou are among the most prominent books published in the 40s S.H. (60s A.D.), in which gender and its representation are of central importance. The present study made an attempt answer the following questions: 1) How are men and women represented in the poetry of Farrokhzad and Shamlou? 2) What is the relationship between the representation of women and men in the poetry of Farrokhzad and Shamlou with gender discourses in the forties? Methods The current research is a qualitative and data-based study. The research data was collected by reading two books, “Another Birthday” by Forough Farrokhzad and “Aida in the Mirror by Ahmed Shamlou. The books were published in Tehran in 1342 and 1343 H.S. (1963 and 1964 A.D.), respectively. Another Birth contains thity-five poems, and Aida in the mirror contains twenty-seven poems (actually 13 poems, one of which contains four poems, and another poem contains 12 poems). Fairclough’s model, including three levels of description, interpretation, and explanation, was used in this study to organize cognitive poetics around gender. In order to find gender-related items in the text, items with enough implications to be gendered were considered. This method prevents gender speculation. For example, considering the female gender for the narrator of a poem whose singer is a woman can only be correct if there are sufficient reasons for this claim in the poem itself. Otherwise, the narrative may be about an abstract object, character, or identity that cannot be definitively identified due to the poem’s complexity. Based on this, the items extracted from the poems are placed in one of the following categories: 1) Direct or implicit references to men and women in the poem; 2) References to women or men in different roles (mother, father, lover, wife, and the like); 3) Referring to experiences specific to one gender (such as giving birth); 4) Using the sexual activity field (such as conceptualizing based on sex); 5) Attributing females and males to genderless objects and phenomena (such as trees). According to the expansion of each item in the poem, one or more clauses or the entire poem was considered a text fragment. At the level of description in each text fragment, gender in the field of origin and destination of conceptual metaphors, megametaphor (if any), the ratio of women and men with cognitive ideal models, over-specificity and under-specificity of gendered subjects and action chains of gendered participants were investigated. The literary schema was used to interpret the discourse practice at the interpretation level. At the level of explanation, the results of the previous levels were organized in the form of patterns of representation of women and men in relation to gender discourses in the forties. Results Gender tracing based on five established criteria led us to seventy-six samples in Another Birthday and forty-three in Aida in the Mirror. The findings were in three explanatory axes: Women and men as parents, women and men as subjects of the relationship, and women and men independent of each other. The first axis showed that childbearing in these two works is activated in the pattern of reproduction and drives men and women to the two lower spheres of mating (in Shamlu’s poem) and rape (in Farrokhzad’s poem). The concept of birth is only used to conceptualize natural or abstract phenomena positively. These two approaches create a gap in that part of the dominant discourse that values men's reproductive power and women’s fertility. In addition, Farrokhzad challenges and rejects the valuing of women as procreative mothers. However, this does not mean the complete rejection of the concept of motherhood. The concept of motherhood is included in the nurturing mother model in relationships between men and women. The second axis indicated that at the level of the relationship, Shamlu sees the woman as the subject of a romantic relationship. A woman is conceptualized as a lover or combination with a nurturing mother (a faithful and nursing woman) or in the image of an ethereal woman (pure and incorporeal). Both cases are models of the Armani women cluster. This model disrupts the discourse of commodification of the body with a traditional point of view. The man of Shamlu’s poem feeds on the love power of this ideal woman to become stronger and more victorious. This is the dominant discourse in which the faithful and submissive woman is influential in the man’s growth in the power hierarchy. In Farrokhzad’s poetry, no boundary was found between romantic and physical relationships. What happens in a relationship is becoming one, and men and women reach an equal point in the ups and downs of the relationship, and this path is a natural path. At the same time as activating the egalitarian discourse, Farrokhzad also rejects the commodification of the body. The results of the third axis revealed that in Aida in the Mirror, the woman appears once outside a relationship (with a man) or as a parent (for a child). However, the man, in addition to these two positions, is also present actively in an independent. In the dominant discourse, a woman is always defined in relation to a man, and a man is the one who can grow in the power hierarchy. In Farrokhzad’s poetry, men are depicted as belonging to an egalitarian discourse like women. However, women appear with different roles in the poem to be challenged as manifestations of the dominant discourse. Notably, the narrator sees herself as separate or different from these women.  Conclusion The discourse of hegemonic masculinity and, consequently, modern submissive femininity were the two dominant discourses in the 1340s S.H. in Iran, which also overlapped with the discourse of body commodification. Competing discourses included egalitarian discourses and anti-body commodification discourses. Disturbing the existing discursive order required demarcation with modern government-made femininity and traditional femininity, denying the independence of female identity. Men’s and women’s reproductive power is the only part of the dominant discourse that is rejected with similar intensity by Shamlou and Farrokhzad. The signs of rejecting body commodification in Shamlu’s poetry are rooted in the traditional view that protecting women’s dependence is in the dominant discourse. The model of a nurturing mother, which is part of the dominant discourse, also leads to the image of an ideal woman in Shamlu’s poem in combination with a lover. The man of his poetry has the characteristics of a hegemonic man. In his poetry, competing spaces between genders happen by backgrounding the female gender. The women’s representation in Farrokhzad’s poetry moves on the border that is necessary to disrupt the existing discourse order. Her poetry is less polarized than the male and female genders, and competing spaces are mainly formed between different types of women. This characteristic, along with the use of the female body and experience in conceptualization, shows her confrontation with the dominant discourse on different levels. Ethical Consideration Compliance with ethical guidelines The researcher did not use any clinical examination on humans and animals. All ethical principles have been observed. Author’s contributions The first author wrote the draft paper. After reviewing and applying some corrections by other authors. The final version was compiled under the responsibility of the second author. Funding This research has been done at the author’s expense. Acknowledgment This Article is a part of my PhD dissertation at The Institute for Cognitive Science Studies. The authors appreciate all experts and professors for their advice. Conflict of Interest The authors declared no conflict of interest.

Introduction Due to puberty, adolescents seek self-discovery, and some adolescents may not have stable mental states, which may lead to risky behaviors. Cognitive emotion regulation is an essential factor in the emergence of high-risk behaviors as a protective role, and its maladaptive aspect is a contributing factor. According to previous studies, there is a relationship between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and high-risk behaviors. Adolescents with more problems in regulating their emotions have more maladaptive behaviors (9). Language is the primary tool through which people can share their views and thoughts. Cognitive linguists such as Lakoff and Johnson believe that language reflects the human mind and operates based on the same coherent pattern as the rest of human cognitive functions (12). In cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphors, as its main part, are mental or abstract domains by which mental concepts are conceptualized and are considered an inter-domain mapping in the human conceptual system. Therefore, mapping or metaphorical connection is the core of metaphor that matches the source domains with the target domains (15). Like any other abstract conceptual domain, time has a metaphorical nature, requiring source domains such as objects, places, paths, spaces, and the like to understand it (27). Therefore, this study aims to examine the fit of the model for predicting adolescents’ risky behavior based on cognitive emotion regulation strategies with the mediating role of time metaphorical perception. Methods This correlation study used the structural equation method. The statistical population was the adolescents of Tehran from September 2022 to May 2023. For this purpose, 400 adolescents were selected by available sampling. The participants completed the Risk Perception, Time Metaphorical Perception, and Cognitive Emotion Regulation questionnaires. The SPSS-26 software was used for descriptive data analyses, and AMOS-8.8 software was used to evaluate the fitted model. Risk Perception Questionnaire: This questionnaire, created by Zademohammadi, and has 38 items. It is scored using a Likert scale consisting of 5 options (Completely disagree=1 and Completely agree=5). This questionnaire includes the following subscales: drug tendency, alcohol tendency, smoking tendency, violence tendency, opposite sex intimacy tendency, and risky driving tendency (29). The Cronbach’s alpha for the whole scale was 0.94. Time Metaphorical Perception Questionnaire: This questionnaire was designed by Raiisi and Moghadsin designed this questionnaire, which has 30 items and three subscales of matter, place, and object. Cronbach’s alpha was reported as 0.89 for the entire questionnaire (30). Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire: This questionnaire was designed by Garnefski et al. and has 18 items. This questionnaire aims to measure the nine subscales of cognitive emotion regulation (self-blame, acceptance, rumination, positive refocusing, refocusing on planning, positive reappraisal, perspective-taking, catastrophizing, and blaming others) (7). Garnefski, et al. obtained the reliability of this questionnaire by using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient equal to 0.91, 0.87, and 0.93, respectively (7). In Iran, in the study of Pazuki et al., the validity of the questionnaire was examined by correlating the total score with the scores of the questionnaire’s subscales, which ranged from 0.40 to 0.68, with an average of 0.56 (31). Results Demographic data indicated that in terms of gender, 68.25% of the participants were girls, and 31.75% were boys. Pearson’s correlation findings demonstrated a negative and significant correlation between positive cognitive emotion regulation strategies and time metaphorical perception with risky behavior. In another word, a positive and significant correlation exists between negative cognitive emotion regulation and risky behavior. Table 1 presents the variables’ mean, standard deviation, and correlation matrix. Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlation matrix of research variables Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 Risky behavior 1 105.3 11.06 1 Positive cognitive emotion regulation strategies 2 28.80 7.21 -0.54* 1 Negative cognitive emotion regulation strategies 3 18.69 5.35 -0.77** -0.46** 1 Time metaphorical perception 4 98.15 17.51 -0.38** 0.55** 0.43** 1 In the obtained model, the indices of (RMSEA), (GFI), and (CFI) are equal to 0.04, 0.84, and 0.91, respectively. Also, the model has a suitable fit; in other words, the appropriateness of the fit indices indicates the conformity of statistical data with the model of the relationship between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and adolescents’ risky behavior with the mediating role of time metaphorical perception. Table 2 shows the fit indices of the model of the relationship between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and adolescents’ risky behaviors with the mediating role of time’s metaphorical perception. Table 2. The results of fit indices of the model Indices CFI GFI AGFI PNFI RMSEA X2/df Obtained values 0.91 0.84 0.88 0.56 0.04 1.65 Figure 1. Model of the relationship between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and risky behavior of adolescents with the mediating role of time metaphorical perception Conclusion The results of this study showed that the time metaphoric perception has a mediating role between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and risky behavior in adolescents. In summary, by increasing the negative cognitive emotion regulation strategy, the risky behavior of adolescents increases, and by increasing the positive cognitive emotion regulation strategy, adolescents’ risky behavior decreases. The main limitation of this study was that the sample was limited to adolescents from several districts of Tehran. Therefore, it is suggested that psychologists and psychotherapists use the results of this study in their therapeutic approaches and investigations for future studies. Ethical Considerations Compliance with ethical guidelines This study strictly followed all ethical guidelines, including obtaining informed consent from participants and ensuring their confidentiality. Participants were also free to withdraw from the study at any point. Authors’ contributions This study is taken from the second author’s master’s thesis, which was carried out under the supervision of the first author. The first author was involved in selecting the topic, research design, data analysis, and writing the article, and the second author was involved in the data collection and analysis. Funding This study did not receive specific grants or financial support. Acknowledgments The authors express their gratitude to all the teenagers who participated in this study. Conflicts of interest There is no conflict of interest between the authors of this article.