GEOSCIENCES
Year:2016 | Volume:25 | Issue:98|Papers Count:44

Fracture intensity-controlling factors, which include folding mechanism, lithology and thickness of layers, have been investigated in the Asmari Formation of the Kuh-e- Asmari using field studies and satellite images. Parameters such as structural position, spacing and vertical extension of the fractures in the limestone and argillaceous limestone units of different thicknesses in the Asmari Formation sequence in Kuh-e Asmari anticline were studied. The existence of large amounts of low-strength and high-porous clay minerals in the argillaceous limestone has resulted in the overall low strength of the rock, which eventually led to lower intensity of fractures in argillaceous limestone than of that in limestone. Variations in the fracture intensities in these two rock types showed that the thickness of the units does not much affect the fracture intensity. Hinge-parallel and hinge-perpendicular fractures resulted from flexural-slip folding and outer-arc extension in the hinge area of the fold exhibit the largest development, and exert the highest effect on wellbore instabilities. Results show that the maximum fracture intensity is in the hinge area of the fold, and that folding mechanism is the most important factor in controlling the intensity of the fractures.

Surveying the uptake of metal substances by plants has a very important role in mineral exploration, but biogeochemical exploration has not been paid much attention in Iran. The aim of current study was surveying vegetative species of Khajeh-jamali mineral area to evaluate the probability of biogeochemical exploration of chromite and to evaluate the uptake of Iron, Copper, Lead and Nickel in the floral plants providing biological absorption coefficient (BAC). Also it aimed to evaluate the reliability of comparing metal uptake of the plants with control groups as an assisting method of exploration. The area is located on the Zagros thrust zone belong to the Alps ophiolitic band. Rock units of this area are mainly composed of rocks from Neyriz ophiolite assemblage, which are mostly of Harzburgite and Dunite types with chromite as the major mineral. The concentrations of metal substances in this area are assessed in previous studies. To study six substances of Chrome, Nickel, Iron, Cupper, Lead, and Zinc, in five herbal species including Amygdalus carduchorum, Pistacia atlantica, Ebenus stellata, Asragalus sp. and Rheum ribes, twenty five samples (5 from each species) were collected in the study area and five samples (one for each species) were collected from an area outside of the region as control. The samples were analyzed by ICP-OES method. The resultant data was statistically analyzed using One-way Anova and T-test. BAC was in “low” or “very low” range for all the five plant species. The results showed that Rheum Ribes could be useful in Nickle exploration and Ebenus stellata for Lead exploration. This study suggests future biogeochemical investigations of areas with flora having undefined or low BAC to consider comparison of plants’ substance uptake with controls as an assisting method.

The Kish gas-field is one of the world’s largest gas-fields, and consists of two reservoir rocks of Kangan (Lower Triassic) and Dalan (Late Permian) formations in the Zagros sedimentary basin. In this study, the Kangan formation has been examined. In this research, in addition to the use of raw data obtained from logging of a drilled well from the whole extent of the field, probabilistic petrophysics evaluation method was used to assess the petrophysical properties (shale volume, lithology, porosity and water saturation) of the Kangan formation. A method based on statistics and possibilities was also utilized to interpret the graphs (logs) with the help of multi-mineral model, a module of Multimin Software. Based on the results of this assessment and the use of lithology-determining cross-plots, as well as standard charts of Schlumberger, the dominant lithology of the Kangan formation in the studied well was recognized as calcite, dolomite, some anhydrite and small amounts of shale. The ultimate aim of the petrophysical evaluation in hydrocarbon studies of the Kish gas-field is to provide proper inputs to the reservoir static model. In order to make a more detailed study, this formation was divided into two parts, K1 and K2. As a whole, the calculated volume shale in the Kangan formation in this well is low and in K2 part is less. This could be considered as a reason for the equal effective porosity in most of the points along the well.

Distinct cathodoluminescence (CL) properties of certain minerals such as quartz allow rapid identification of the different mineral constituents and their distribution within rocks using CL microscopy. Quartz is not only one of the main mineral in felsic intrusive rocks associated with porphyry copper deposits, but is the most abundant hydrothermal mineral in potassic and phyllic alterations. Although the study of the quartz in Back Scattered Electrons (BSE) images is useful but study of quartz by Scanning Electron Microscope- Cathodoluminescence (SEM-CL) revealed many textures (zoning, healed microfractures and cobweb textures) that cannot be observed in backscattered electrons images. The observed zonations reflect chemical and/or physical changes during growth in the precipitation environment (i.e. concentric zonation). Healed microfractures and cobweb textures are present in some of the quartz grains. The main purpose of this study is investigation of quartz textures and generations by SEM-CL in potassic and phyllic zones of the Sarcheshmeh porphyry copper ore deposit. Investigation of quartz using SEM-CL in the deposit revealed different generations of quartz (in phenocrysts and veins) that have been precipitated under different conditions. Quartz in the studied samples predominantly exhibits blue luminescence.

Picrites are seen within the mantle peridotites in the Darreh Deh area (in the east of Nain ophiolitic mélange). Based on petrography and mineral chemistry, these picrites are composed of olivine (chrysolite), clinopyroxene (diopside) and orthopyroxene (enstatite), showing a cumulate texture, and small amounts (less than 10 volume%) of plagioclase and chromian spinels as accessory minerals. Application of clinopyroxene geothermobarometry methods indicates the equilibrium temperatures of ~1040 to 1205 °C and pressure of 8.6 kbar for the clinopyroxene crystallization in the melt. Amphibole and talc crystallization and the results of amphibole thermo barometry (~675-700 °C, 4.8-6.5 kbar) indicates that these rocks have undergone metamorphism under amphibolite facies in Jurassic, similar to their host mantle peridotites. Whole rock chemistry and chromian spinel composition confirm high partial melting degrees of mantle and progressive ascending melt/wall rock reactions in a suprasubduction zone in which tholeiitic melts were produced. During the production of this melt, picrites with cumulous texture formed within the mantle peridotites by precipitation of olivine, pyroxenes and minor amounts of intercumulous plagioclase crystals from the primitive melt.

The Albian-TuronianSarvak Formation is one of the main oil reservoirs in south and southwest Iran that hosts significant amount of hydrocarbon resources in this region. Facies analysis in seven oil fields of Persian Gulf led to identification of 7 microfaceis that are deposited in four facies belts in a homoclinal ramp platform. Studies show that there is major facies variation in Sarvak carbonates of offshore Zagros. The rudistbearing facies are mainly developed as major reservoir facies in the eastern Persian Gulf (Siri Fields) and replaced with mud-dominated lagoonalfacies in central and western sectors of considered area (Hendijan, Bahregansar, Balal and Lavan Fields). There are positive correlation between paleogeographic position of rudist buildups and configuration of Sarvak reservoir in the Persian Gulf. Main diagenetic processes that effected facies of this formation are neomorphism, bioturbation, micritization, dolomitization, dissolution, cementation, stylolitization and fracturing. During diagenesis, rudist-dominated facies are selectively dissolved and led to development porosity and reservoir quality in the Siri Fields. Generally, diagenesis is slightly impacted reservoir properties in the central and western parts oil fields, although, dolomitization is improved reservoir characteristics in the Bahregansar Field. Petrophysical evolution of studied intervals suggests that good reservoir intervals are associated with rudist-bearing facies. As well, there are decreasing trend in both porosity and permeability values from top of formation downwards, particularly in Siri fields. This trend is attributed to effect of meteoric diagenetic under the Turonian unconformity. In conclusion, our studies indicate that occurrence and evolution of rudists had main impact on diagenetic modification and reservoir potential of Sarvak Formation.

Nearly one-third of the shortening in Iran plateau due to Arabia-Eurasia convergence is accommodated in the Zagros fold and thrust belt, which is seismically one of the most active regions among the continental collision zones in the world. Deploying a temporary seismic network in the north of Bandar Abbas in Hormozgan Province, which consisted of 32 three-component seismograph stations operating for a duration of about 3.5 months, provided appropriate data for studying the upper crustal structure of the easternmost Zagros by using Local Earthquake Tomography. Three dimensional velocity model obtained from the conversion of P-wave arrival times indicates southwestward over thrusting of the lower crust of northern parts, supporting active under thrusting of the Arabian plate beneath Central Iran in the easternmost Zagros. A very low velocity zone is also observed in the eastern part of the study area that could be associated with the Zendan-Minab-Palami fault system.

Mishan Formation in the Gohreh section (north of Bandar Abbas) is investigated in order to identify echinoid species. Systematic study of echinoids shows presence of two orders in the studied area; Spatangoida and Clypeasteroida. Five described species are: Clypeaster sp., Clypeaster goirensis, Schizaster granti, Moira adamthi, Maretia ranjitpurensis. The co-occurrence of index associated foraminifers such asOrbulina universaand Globigerinoides trilobus shows the Middle Miocene age for the echinoid bearing beds.

The north-south trending Astara Fault System (AFS) is located in the east of Talesh Mountains (TM) and west of the Caspian Sea. The probable seismic activity of this fault system will largely affect the north of GilanProvince. The AFS is one of the basement faults in Iran, which plays an important role in Talesh Mountains region and subsidence of the South Caspian Basin (SCB). It seems that the AFS is the source of moderate to large magnitude instrumental earthquakes such as the 16-4-1913 (Magnitude=5.1), 11-7-1970 (Magnitude Mb=5.2), 4-11-1978 (Magnitude Ms=6.0) earthquakes. However, little is known about historical earthquakes related to the AFS, but it has been probably the source of the 1709AD and 1713AD historical earthquakes in Rasht. In spite of the earthquakes attributed to the AFS, the lack of critical seismic information such as recurrence interval, slip rate and activity rate of the AFS has made its future seismic activity ambiguous. This research aims at assessing the earthquake recurrence interval related to the AFS. Therefore, two different methods, i.e. Gutenberg–Richter and Kijko–Sellovelmethods, were used to estimate the recurrence interval. The results obtained from the Gutenberg–Richter method represent an earthquake of Ms>8 to occur in the interval of 500, 1000 and 2000 years. The results of the Kijko–Sellovel method, however, represent earthquakes with the magnitudes of Ms =7.3, Ms =7.7 andMs =7.9 to occur in the interval of 500, 1000 and 2000 years, respectively.

The Madan Bozorg deposit is located in the Abbas Abad mining district, about 130 km east of Shahroud. The area is covered by a NE-SW trending belt of intermediate-mafic lava flows and pyroclastic materials, as well as interlayered sedimentary rocks. Eight copper deposits have been identified in the district. Based on the chemistry, the volcanic rocks can be classified as trachyandesite, trachyandesitic basalt and trachybasalt; the rocks display high potassium calc-alkaline to shoshonitic affinities and bear geochemical attributes characteristic of continental arc settings. The Madan Bozorg deposit is hosted in trachyandesite with porphyritic to mega porphyritic, glomeroporphyritic and amygdaloidal textures. Based on field observations, microscopic studies, Raman spectroscopy and XRD results, two types of alteration, regional and local, can be distinguished. The regional or background alteration, is comparable to a propylitic assemblage and occurs in mineralized and non- mineralized volcanic units. Local alteration associated with copper mineralization includes calcic, silicic, sericitic, chloritic, zeolitic and hematitic. Copper mineralization occurs as disseminated, vein- veinlet, replacement, stockworks and irregular open space fillings. Based on microscopic studies and EPMA data, chalcocite group minerals (chalcocite, djurleite, anilite, digenite and covellite) are the main ore minerals and are accompanied by subordinate bornite, pyrite and hematite. Secondary minerals include covellite, malachite, azurite, chrysocolla and goethite. Nonmetallic minerals are quartz, chlorite, epidote, calcite, and chalcedony. Based on fluid inclusion studies on coexisting quartz, homogenization temperatures are between 90 to 268°C with an average of 176° C. Salinities vary between 3.38 to 21.96 (average, 13.21) wt% NaCl eq. Fluid density varies between 0.8 to 1.1 g.cm-3. The depth of fluid inclusion trapping is estimated to be less than 200 meters, and ore formation occurred at pressures less than 50 bars. The host rocks, ore mineralogy, ore textures and structures, and fluid inclusions characteristics in Madan Bozorg deposit are similar to those reported from Manto type copper deposits in Mesozoic-Cenozoic volcanic belts in South America and elsewhere.

The present tectonic structure and high seismicity of the Makran zone is affected by the northward subduction of the Neo-Tethys oceanic plate under the Eurasian plate. According to scientific and historical evidences, the Makran fault has high seismicity and is completely capable of causing tsunami hazard on Iranian southeastern and Pakistanian western coasts. Topography, Free-Air and Bouguer gravity anomalies show critical changes over this region, which are related to the changes in the Earth deep structures. More negative Free-Air gravity values are observed in the western rather than eastern parts, indicating that the subducting plate beneath the western Makran is steeper than of that beneath the eastern part. Many of the earthquakes of magnitudes greater than 6 in the Makran have occurred in places where the Free-Air gravity changes abruptly from positive to negative values. Such areas could predict, to some extent, large earthquakes. Bouguer gravity values change from 150 mGal in the oceanic crust of Oman Sea to -90 mGal in the Eurasian continental region. Moho depth is about 14 km beneath the Oman Sea and increases up to 32 km under the Eurasian continental crust. The subducting plate dips around 5.70. Studying and numerical simulation of flooding water due to tsunami, and considering possible earthquakes, is very important. In this research, the run up of tsunami caused by the possible earthquakes of the Makran fault in Sistan and Baluchestan province coastlines (Beris region) has been studied using numerical methods. The scenarios were tested by three earthquakes including an 8-magnitude earthquake, the 1945Pakistan earthquake with a magnitude of 8.5, and 9-magnitude earthquake in Japan, 2010. Results show that the maximum flood height of the model was up to 0.5m (for the 8-magnitudeearthquake), 3.4m (for the 8.5-magnitude earthquake) and 14m (for the 9-magnitude earthquake). The maximum flood width is estimated to be 1.4 km and the arrival time of the first tsunami waves is inferred to be 22 minutes. These results could be useful in determining high risk regions to optimize development planning.

Abderaz Formation is one of the Lithostratigraphic units of upper Cretaceous whose age is determined as Turonian-Santonian in Kopet-Dagh sedimentary basin of northeast Iran. Its major lithology in Sanganeh section contains Marl, Marly limestone, and gray shales and light green shale along with three bands of chalky limestones. This formation thickness in Sanganeh section is measured 530 meter out of which 41 samples were systematically taken. In order to interpret the Pale oenvironment and sequence stratigraphy, this formation in Sanganeh section was analyzed using palynological facies and conformity of Ostracods and dinoflagellates. Having examined the frequency ratio (abundance) of two groups of Ostracoda (Platycopids to Podocopids), it was observed that the most abundant oceanic dissolved oxygen is seen in marly layers near calcareous band of chalky limestones and the least abundant is seen in layers far from those bands. In addition, based on the abundance of genera such as Paracypris, Brachycthere, and Bairdia mostly seen near calcareous band of chalky limestones and ostracoda with ornamented carapce and thicker layers such as Veenia, Pterygocythereis seen in marly layers near chalky limestones, it can be stated that it is shallower near calcareous band of chalky limestones and moving toward marly and shale layers it becomes deeper. Analyzing 82 Palynological slides resulted in identification of three Palynofacies of V, IV, II, in this formation. The results obtained from statistical studies of palynological factors including AOM to Marine palynomorph ratio, abundance of foraminifera test lining, and Peridinioid/Gonyaulacoid ratio for determining the amount of oxygen in the environment indicate that often there were low levels of oxygen in this formation however, there were times when oxic condition was dominant. Also in order to discuss relative sea level changes by Palynological facies, two factors were used; first one being dinocysts of specific inner neritic to outer neritic ratio and chorate/ proximate, proximochorate and cavate cysts (C/PPC) ratio.The results gained from studies on Ostracoda confirm the results obtained from palynological studies and show that the Abderaz Formation is deposited in an open marine from Inner neritic to outer neritic in a disoxic to suboxic environment.

The southern Alvand granitoid with an outcrop area of 120 km2 is situated at south and southwest of Hamedan city. The porphyry biotite bearing granitoids are the main constitute of the pluton. Biotite is responsible for magnetic behavior of this pluton. The magnetic lineation (L), foliation (F), and anisotropy (P) parameters of oriented samples of 107 stations were measured at environmental and paleomagnetic laboratory based in Geological Survey of Iran, Tehran, Iran. The analysis of these parameters revealed the existence of reverse relationship between dipping angle of magnetic lineation and foliation with their numerical magnitude, and that the magnetic lineation and foliation are accordance with magnetic anisotropy in Alvand granitoid. The above mentioned relationship may resulted due to interaction of different effective forces during ascending and emplacement of magma as well as their ability in ordering magnetic minerals in various positions within the magma. As orientation of the magnetic minerals increases, the numerical magnitude of magnetic lineation and foliation also, increases. The microstructural analysis also showed that most of the observed orientation in enclaves and alkali feldspars of the studied area is due to magma flow. In this study, where ever the numerical magnitude of magnetic lineation was high, the magnetic ellipsoid was prolate and where ever the numerical magnitude of magnetic foliation was high, the magnetic ellipsoid was oblate. The Darreh-Bagh granitoid at northwest of Aligodarz city in the Sanandaj- Sirjan zone, shows the same relationships between magnetic parameters and is used as a support for findings in this study.

The studied section is located in the south of Central Alborz, 5 kilometers to the north of Shahmirzad City in the Semnan province. This section is situated at 35° 48′ 40″ N latitude and 53° 16′ 59″ E longitude. The Mila Formation has 5 measurable members in type section (Mila Kuh, Damghan City) and only in this studied section. This formation overlies conformably the Early Cambrian Lalun Formation and underlies disconformably the Early Devonian red conglomerates. Studied Conodonts of this formation are of Proconodonts type belonging to Coniform Groups. Fourteen species and six genera of these conodonts were acquired indicating an age of Mid-Late Cambrian and Early Ordovician. These Conodonts are listed as below: Proconodontus serratus, Proconodontus muelleri, Proconodontus rotundatus, Prooneotodus sp?, Prooneotudus tenuis, Furnishina furnishi, Furnishina asymmetrica, Furnishina sp.,Furnishina obliqus-Hirsutodontus?, Westergardodina cf. mossbergensis, Westergardodina fossa, Cordylodus, Cordylodus intermedius, Cordylodus lindstromi, Cordylodus proavus, Oneotodus nakamurai & Problematoconites sp. A Remarkable point is the discovery of species Prooneotodus tenuis in the second member of Mila Formation because no conodont has previously been reported from this member. Other microfossils such as trilobites, brachiopoda, hyolithes, eocrinoidae, rusophycus, cruziana, paleoscoleidae and sponges were also obtained indicating deposition of Mila Formation in a shallow marine environment. These fossil assemblages are comparable with those from other parts of Iran and neighbor countries.

Total organic carbon content is one of the important parameters to evaluate the geochemical properties of oil- and gas-producing layers. In this study, total organic carbon content in the hydrocarbon-bearing formations was evaluated using log data in three stages. In the first stage, we used artificial neural network to calculate the organic carbon content. In the second stage, total organic carbon was calculated by using DLogR computational method. Finally in the last stage, well log data were classified into a set of electrofacies, which were performed using the most efficient clustering analysis method, i.e. MRGC method. Based on cluster validity tests, this method is the best to cluster petro physical data in certain electrofacies. Cluster analysis was employed for classification of data from both neural network and DLogR methods. The results showed that intelligent systems are more appropriate than traditional techniques which are based on DLogR approaches, and also have higher accuracy. The proposed method has been presented with a case study from the Azadegan oilfield.

The Daraloo and Sarmeshk copper deposits lie in a northwest-trending fault zone, 10 km long and 0.5-1 km wide in the southern section of the Kerman copper belt, south Iran. The area is marked by a series of Late Eocene-Oligocene granodiorite and Miocene porphyritic tonalitegranodiorite intrusions that cut Eocene andesitic and basaltic lava flows and pyroclastic rocks. Mineralization in both deposits is associated with the Miocene porphyritic intrusions. Both volcanic and plutonic rocks are intruded by post-mineralization diabasic, andesitic and rhyolitic dykes. Representative samples from various rocks were analyzed for major oxides and a wide range of elements. The samples display calcalkaline affinities; the volcanic rocks are metaluminous, and the intrusive rocks are peraluminous. On primitive mantle- and chondritenormalized plots, all rocks are characterized by enrichment in large ion lithophile elements and light rare earth elements, relative to high field strength elements and heavy rare earth elements. The features, combined with the negative anomalies for Nb, Ta, and Ti, are characteristic of the subduction- related magmas.The Miocene tonalites are most fractionated, with LaN/YbN ratios ranging between 7.81 and 18.21. This ratio in granitoid rocks is between 6.61 and 7.56. The volcanic rocks are least fractionated, with LaN/YbN ratios from 1.52 to 5.16. The geochemical attributes of the intrusive bodies from both Daraloo and Sarmeshk are consistent with significant contribution from sediments and crustal materials in the source area, compared to that introduced by fluids released from a subducting slab. The volcanic rocks are, however, appear to have been least affected by crustal materials, but slightly influenced by slab-derived fluids. Plots of samples from all plutonic and volcanic rocks on various discrimination diagrams indicate a transition from an island-arc setting in Paleocene-Eocene to a continental margin volcanic arc setting in Neogene. This is in agreement with earlier works on the evolution of the Kerman belt.

The Qalikuh area,~35 km southwest of Aliqudarz, contains oil shale deposits in Garue and Sargelu formations(Jurassic-Cretaceous). Some 20 samples across two sections (Charun3-Deh ye Qali3) were selected and analyzed (Rock Eval – ICP – XRD – XRF) to study organic and mineral parameters(to determine type of organic material and kerogen, total organic carbon, thermal evolution, concentration, and classification of elements and minerals) and to model the relations between these parameters. The Qalikuh oil shale has a great potential for oil production with high levels of TOC (13.5 wt%), type 2 kerogen, low thermal maturity. However Qalikuh oil shale has metallic and nonmetallic element anomalies and high concentrations of strategic elements compared to Clark values. Dendritic diagrams suggest variable origins for elements and minerals in the samples. Some are associated with development of organic materials, TOC parameters, Resin and Asphaltene, and some are associated with clastic materials, aluminosilicates and source rock weathering.

Fluctuation of the grade of the ore feeding the processing plants is one of the most important factors in plant’s recovery, so that plant efficiency increases as the fluctuations decrease. In order to reduce the grade variability, homogenization piles are largely used in mining industry. The mass and the number of layers in the pile have an important role in the rate of grade variability reduction. The grade variability decreases as the mass and the number of layers increase, although this increase can lead to an increase in operation complexity and costs. In this research, a method based on geostatistical simulations was used to predict grade variability in the Anguran mine. In this regard, 25 equi-probable grade realizations are first generated using the Sequential Gaussian Simulation method by SGeMS Software, then the block model for each realization is built in DATAMINE Software. In the next stage, the blocks that would be sent to the pile are specified taking into account the production planning (mine schedule) obtained from NPV Software. Finally, grade variability was determined for various pile sizes and number of forming layers. Based on the obtained results, piles with a mass of 187 kt and 25 layers have the lowest variability.

This study aimed to compare Asmari Formation in two sections in Maleh-Kuh and Amiran anticlines based on benthonic foraminifera. In this study, 26 species and 16 genera of benthonic foraminifera from the Maleh-Kuh section yielded 2 biozones of Elphidium sp. 14 – Peneroplis farsenensis and Borelis melo curdica – Borelis melo melo were suggesting an age of Aquitanian – Burdigalian for the formation. In Amiran anticline based on 27 species and 20 genera only the biozone of Borelis melo curdica – Borelis melo melo (Burdigalian) was recorded. Based on this study, the Asmari sequence in Maleh-kuh Section (with a thickness of 310 m) deposited earlier In Aquitanian. But in Amiran section (with 162 m thickness) deposition started in Burdigalian and ended synchronously in both sections. In both sections the Asmari Formation overlain Shahbazan Formation disconformably and is in turn under lain by Ghachsaran Formation concordantly-transitionally in Maleh-Kuh and by a sharp contact in Amiran Section.

Considering importance of ammonite fauna in biostratigraphy and sedimentary basins and due to the lack of studies on the ammonite fauna in the Kazhdumi Formation, the Nar stratigraphic section was selected and studied in the coastal Fars, northeast of Kangan (East Bushehr). The formation with a thickness of 87 meters in the studied section contains alternation of cream to brown limestone and brownish red marl. The lower boundary with the carbonate of the underlying Dariyan Formation is unconformable and in the upper boundary is gradually covered by the Madoud Member of Sarvak Formation. In the present study, 110 ammonites have been collected which are belong to three genera and seven species. These include Knemiceras sp., Knemiceras persicum, Knemiceras dubertreti, Knemiceras syriacum, Knemiceras comperessum, Tegoceras camatteanum and Lyelliceras lyelli. Based on these one subzone was differentiated indicating a late Early to Middle Albian age for the formation.

Recently the instrumentation of dams has gained a special place in Iran. In large-scale projects, such as earthen and concrete dams, instrumentation installation and monitoring, especially during the construction and operation, is an integral and essential component. Dam stability is one of the most important issues related to geotechnical engineering. Therefore, considering the uncertainty of geotechnical parameters, risk analyses are inevitable in dam projects. This study has first examined the accuracy of the instrumentation installed in the dam, then dealt with the quantification of the maximum settlement, vertical stress in the core, and arching phenomenon based on the results of numerical analysis and instrumentation. For numerical analyses, the GeoStudio 7.1 Software was used. In addition to simultaneous analyses, this software is also capable of analyzing the stage construction and two-dimensional consolidation. Behavioral models used in the analysis consist of linear elastic and elastic-perfectly plastic Mohr-Coulomb models. Acomparison between modeling and concise instrument results suggests that the doostidam is in a stable and safety condition.

The study area,~12 km to the southwest of the city Behabad, is a part of the Posht-e-Badam Block in Central Iran. Igneous rocks in the area occur as intrusive, sub-volcanic and volcanic bodies and exhibit a wide range of composition from felsic to mafic. The intrusive and subvolcanic rocks include the relatively large Homijan granitoid, Ferdows granitoid, gabbro- diorite stocks and Kuh-Siah sub- volcanic rhyolitic dome. The Homijan granitoid is composed of a shallow-level intrusion in the center to rhyolitic lavas and tuffs in the margins. The whole assemblage is covered by dolomites of the Rizu series, with no thermal metamorphism in the covering rocks. Homijan granitoid displays porphyritic, porphyroid and graphic textures composed of coarse plagioclase, alkali feldspar and quartz in a fine- grained quartz- feldspatic matrix; the marginal rhyolitic lavas have porphyritic and spherolitic textures with quartz and alkali feldspar phenocrysts. Rhyolitic tuffs have porphyroclastic texture. Ferdows granite has hetero-granular, graphic and perthitic texture composed of quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase. Kuh-Siah rhyolites have porphyric, felsophyry and felsitic textures with small quartz and alkali feldspar phenocrysts. Geochemical studies demonstrate that Homijan and Ferdows granitiods and the marginal rhyolites of the Homijan, as well as the Kuh-Siah rhyolitic dome have high- K calc- alkaline to shoshonitic nature and can be classified as S-type per aluminous granitoids with some tendency to I-type granitoids. Based on the spider diagrams, all rocks have similar trend which is indicative for their genetic relation. These diagrams indicate enriched LILEs (Rb, K, Th and Pb) along with negative anomalies of HFSEs (Nb and Ti). Chondrite normalized REE patterns demonstrate LREEs-enriched patterns with high ratios of LREE/HREE. The positive and negative anomalies of the mentioned elements in the studied rocks probably are related to lower partial melting degrees of a metasomatized mantle along with crustal contamination of the magma. Based on field investigation, petrographic studies and geochemistry, and using the granitoid discrimination tectonic setting diagrams, it seems that Homijan granitiods and related felsic rocks formed in a post- collisional setting within the Posht-e-Badam Block.

The aim of this study is to determine microfacies and diagenetic processes of the Mobarak Formation with the age of early Carboniferous in Valiabad section, at Karaj-Chalus road. The thickness of the formation at this section is 339 m and consists of limestone with intercalations of shale and marl. According to lithological characteristics, the Mobarak Formationis subdivided into 8 rock units and is disconformably overlain by the Lalun Formation and underlain by Dozdeband Formation. Thirteen microfacies have been recognized on the basis of depositional texture and petrographic analysis. These carbonate facies belong to four major sub- environments including beach/tidal flat, lagoon, barrier/sand shoal and open marine. The Mobarak Formation deposited in a homoclinal carbonate ramp.

Mud volcano is a natural and attractive phenomenon which is generally found as a dome-like feature and basin-shaped in some cases. Mud volcanoes comprise mixtures of water, mud and gas. They are found in most parts of the world particularly in the Alps and Himalaya belts. In Iran, most of the mud volcanoes appear in the coastal plains of the Caspian and Oman seas. Mud volcanoes are commonly considered as indicating presence of oil and gas reserves, and are used to predict subsurface hydrocarbon fields. One or two mud volcanoes were formerly found between Minab and Jask in the Hormozgan Province. Remote sensing study followed by a field work of 30 days in this research led, for the first time, to the identification of 15 mud volcanoes in the Hormozgan Province using clustering analysis. During the field study, a sediment sample was taken from each mud volcano, which was then geochemically analyzed by ICP-OES. In the meantime, grain size was also determined for each sample. The SPSS software was used to process the data. After determining correlation coefficients, clustering analysis, and relationship between different factors obtained from Scuter plot, it turned out that AL, Fe, Ni, V, Sc, Ti, Cr, Zn, CU, Mn, Na, K, Li and Be in the mud volcanoes aregeogenic/continental in origin, while the source of Ca, Mn and S is marine/intra-basinal and biogenic.

Lohneh gold and copper deposits lay in the north west of Iran, 100 kilometers north of Zanjan province. Lohneh mining area is a part of the Tarommetallogenic zone in the Alborz-Azerbaijan region. The presence of numerous minerals, slag melting of mining activities (such as cows and exploratory pits, tunnels) in the Armenian fortress (by Armenian miners) shows that the mineral reserve Lohneh have been considered by old miners. There are 9 gold bearing quartz veins .Two main quartz vein with a length of 500 meters and a width of one meter (visible on the Earth). Rock outcrops in the area consist of the Eocene-Oligocene volcanic rocks (tuffs, tuff breccia, trachyandesite) and intrusive rocks (granodiorite, quartz monzonite, monzonite). On the basis of geochemistry study, intrusive rocks is resemble the I-Type granitoids and from a magmatic stand point, the rocks of the area are calc–alkaline, and tectonically they belong to the continental margin and subduction zones. Tuff breccia rocks cut by quartz monzonite and has been altered. The major alteration of the areas consists of silicious, sericitic, and argillic alteration. The main gold minerals have occurred in tuff breccia rocks and a small amount of gold mineral in quartz monzonite. Gold mineralization in the Lohneh area is in the form of open space, vein-veinlet and hydrothermal breccia. According to chemical analysis of gold mineralized samples gold grade is in the range of at least 0.002 to 10ppm. The average gold grade is 4.35 ppm. Mineralogy of Lohneh deposit has a metallic minerals (oxide, sulfide) and non-metallic (silicate and carbonate) which is composed of two phases hypogene and supergene. Metallic minerals are including gold particles (free in siliceous gangue and visible under a microscope and SEM study), silver (in the free form in siliceous and involved in galena and tetrahedrite network), pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, galena, sphalerite, and tetrahedrite. Non-metallic minerals or gangue consist of quartz, hydrothermal alkali feldspar (adularia), sericite, clay minerals, calcite, and small amount of barite. According to geochemical studies (table correlation of elements, graph clustering and component plot in rotated space) gold with Ag (0.78), cu (0.81), As (0.7), Pb (0.64), Zn (0.6), S (0.4), Bi (0.45), U (0.3), Mo (0.25) is a significant correlation. This correlation geochemistry is corresponded with mineralography evidence (mineral paragenesis sequence) and SEM studies. Fluid inclusion study was performed on primary, large size and rich liquid fluid inclusions on quartz mineral (concurrent with the formation of gold and sulfide minerals).Fluid inclusion data shows in the temperature range from 125 to 290 °C and salinity between 1 and 6.5 wt% NaCl and depths less than 1000 m. Fluid inclusion evidence shows cooling effect, boiling and formation of solutions with high salinity and density of the ore forming fluids in Lohneh deposits. Adularia mineral, calcite, bladed and comb quartz and hydrothermal breccia are evidence of boiling effect in the Lohneh deposits. Evidence of the presence of epithermal textures (banded, comb, blade, and hydrothermal breccia), sericitic alteration, and sulfide minerals such as galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, and fluid inclusions evidence (temperature, salinity, density, vapor-rich inclusions) indicates intermediate sulphidation epithermal gold deposits in Lohneh area.

This paper describes systematic of the foraminifera from Howz-e Khan Member of Nayband Formation in 25km south of the type locality which are exposed in northwest of the Dig-e Rostam area about 300km north of Kerman city and is composed of medium to thick bedded fine-grained limestones containing sponges, dasycladales algae, bivalves, corals and partly abundant upper Triassic foraminifera ofNorian-Rhaetian ages which are mainly of aulotortid types. The following foraminifera taxa are described: Auloconus permodiscoides, Aulotortus friedli, Aulotortus tenuis, Aulotortus tumidus, Aulotortus sinuosus, Duotaxis birmanica, Tetrataxis inflata, Agathammina austroalpina, Miliolipora cuvillieri, Planiinvoluta sp., Ophthalmidium leischneri, Ophthalmidium exiguum, Glomospirella sp., Trochammina alpina, Diplotremina astrofimbriata, Diplotremina subangulata, Duostomina sp., Nodosaria sp1., Nodosaria sp2., Pseudonodosaria sp., Austrocolomia sp., Sigmoilina schaeferae, Reophax tauricus. In this paper relation of foraminifera with reefs and carbonate layerthat are generally typical of low energy, bay or lagoon-type, on shallow carbonate ramps and reef facieshas been studied.

Permian deposits crop out in the North East QarehZiaaeddin (Illanlu section) consisting Dorud, Ruteh, Nesen and Elli Bashi formation respectively. In this section, the Ruteh Formation composes about 751.3m of dark to grey, medium to massive limestone. The Nesen Formation contains approximately 627.3m of shaly limestone, shale and marl and finally the Elli Bashi formation contains about 22.7m grey thin nodular limestone, Red limestone and colored shale. The lower boundary of marine sequence is marked disconformably by Dorud Formation and upper boundary is conformable and continuous with Early and middle Elika Formation. On the basis of strati graphical distribution of microfossils chiefly foraminifera five Assemblage biozoneswere distinguished including Tetrataxis-Globivalvulina-Nankinella Assemblage Biozone (Kubergandian), Langella-Geinitzina Assemblage Biozone (Early to Middle Murghabian), Paraglobivalvulina-Pachyphloia Assemblage Biozone (Late Murghabian to Midian), Codonofusiella-Palaeotextolaria Assemblage Biozone (Midian), Frondina-Hemigordius- Cribrogenerina Assemblage Biozone (Dzhulfian). The identified microfossils suggest Kubergandian to Dorashamian ages (Middle to Late Permian) for carbonate sequences of Permian at the study area. On the basis of lithological changes 15 lithozone were also recognized. With regards to lithological and paleontological characteristics and sequence thickness of marine sequence the Illanlu section is proposed as standard section for Middle and Late Permian stages.

The existence of a sedimentary basin with a large thickness of Neogene sediments(Lower Red Formation) in the Anarak-Talmessi region of central Iran with a basement of Precambrian metamorphic rocks, high rate of erosion processes, and more importantly its safety necessity led us to define the structural pattern and analyze its active tectonics and seimotectonics. In this regard, field observations, processing of satellite images, and investigation of eroded landforms were used. According to the lack of Qom and Upper Red Formations and faulting plus aseismic characteristics of the area up to a radial distance of 86 km, it can be concluded that a combination of a stair-step uplift-erosion system has controlled the basin, which caused its scarp shape and lack of younger sediments.

Babahabib and Sarkan oilfields are located in southwest of the Lurestan Province and 10km west of Pul-dokhtar City. The study area is situated in the Lurestan tectonostratigraphic region, northwest of the folded Zagros structural sub-zone. Although the Lurestan region is part of the Zagros sedimentary basin, it shows essential differences in terms of sedimentary conditions and types, folding and thickness of strata sequences when compared with the Dezful and Fars basins. Information obtained from seismic profiles, well logs and four cross-sections (AA´ to DD´) drawn perpendicular to structural trend indicates the effect of the detachment surfaces on structural geometry of folds in study area. Of the most important dataset used in this study are 2D and 3D seismic lines along with well logs, which were used in geometrical analysis of subsurface structures. According to surface and subsurface structural geometries of fold in central part of the Lurestan region, two detachment surfaces including (1) Garu Formation as the middle detachment surface and (2) Amiran Formation as the upper detachment surface are interpreted to have affected subsurface anticlines (Bangestan group) and small surficial anticlines, respectively. The thickening of the upper detachment surface in western part of the study area has resulted in the development of folds with short wavelength and amplitude in outcrops. This thickness change causes disharmonic folding in surficial anticlines relative to the subsurface anticlines. The geometry of the Sarkan and Baba-Habib anticlines is represented as asymmetric detachment fold in which the increased stress in middle parts of the anticlines plus backthrust structures have developed a geometry resembling Mitras’s (2002) model-1 faulted detachment fold. This model is formed by the high competency contrast between the Garu shaly units at the base and the overlying competent formations of the Bangestan group. Relay geometry of thrusts, which have been initiated from incompetent lower units, is one of the most important factors in controlling the en-echelon arrays of sub-surface anticlines in the area. Surficial geometries of the anticlines have been controlled by the upper detachment surface.

This study has been carried out with the aim of mapping karst and evaluation of potential karstification of carbonates rocks in Zagros. One objective of this paper is a spatial evaluation of karst development in Zagros considering role of the chief factors affecting karst development. The main considered factors are those classified by White (1988) into three driving forces (i.e., chemical driving force, physical driving force and hydrogeological setting). Precipitation, temperature, relief, rock type, tectonic setting and stratigraphic thickness of soluble carbonate rocks are the main factors classified to describe the mentioned driving forces. In this study, precipitation and temperature are represented by the chemical weathering conditions during the modern and glacial periods prepared on the basis of Peltier’s graphs. All data are mapped, classified, weighted and managed in separate layers in GIS environment. The Karst Index (Ki) is introduced to define the modeled degree of karstification computed by proper combination of six weighted layers and the final theoretical karst map of Iran is prepared based on the ranked Karst Index. According to the combination method, values of Ki could be in a range of zero to 400. The classified theoretical karst map shows that out of 109,313 km2 of carbonate units (25 % of the surface area of the study area) about 34212 km2 (31.3% of carbonate rocks) have very low to low potentials for development of karstic features. About 61272 km2 (56% of carbonate rocks) have moderate potential and about 13829 km2 (12.7% of carbonate rocks) have high to very high potentials for karstification. In other words, 68.7% of the carbonate rocks are carbonate rocks with moderate to high potentials for karstification. Densities of caves and karstic springs are the main and the most important geomorphological features used to check the calculated degree of karstification. For this purpose, complete inventories of caves and springs in Zagros were made. 64 caves and 129 springs (with discharges above 10 l/s) occur in rocks in areas of very low to low potentials for karstification. About 132 caves and 300 springs fall in the moderate class and 51 caves and 162 springs in areas with high to very high potentials for karstification. Cave densities are 0.0014, 0.0020, 0.0022, 0.0036 and 0.0039 caves per square kilometers for very low, low, moderate, high and very high classes respectively. In addition, densities of springs are 0.0035, 0.0039, 0.0049, 0.0111 and 0.0131 springs per square kilometers for very low, low, moderate, high and very high classes respectively. In other words, densities of caves and springs show a good correlation with the evaluated karstification.

Baba-Nazar garnet occurrence is located in northwest part of Sanandaj-Sirjan geological zone. Rock units in the area, including hornfels, garnetite and extensively weathered host rocks in contact with granite indicate garnet may have formed by metamorphism of clay-argillite, sandstone and calcareous rocks. The mineralogical and petro graphical studies revealed that the evolution of mineralization has occurred during several progressive, retrograde and supergene alteration, while garnet has formed during progressive alteration. The results of the petro graphical study of fluid inclusions show that most of the fluid inclusions in the garnet crystals fall in two groups: (1) Primary inclusions distributed randomly on the crystal faces and (2) secondary inclusions oriented along fractures and cleavage surfaces. Based on the inclusion diversity, four groups of these inclusions were differentiated: (1) single-phase liquid, (2) two-phase liquid-vapor, (3) solid multi-phase and (4) two-phase liquid–liquid. Micro thermometry of fluid inclusions in the garnet and quartz crystals show homogenization temperatures and salinities from 318 to 438 °C and 18.63 to 22.71 weight percent NaCl equivalent for garnet, and from 209 to 219 °C and 239 to 254 C° with 4.18 to 10.61 weight percent NaCl equivalent for quartz crystals.

The Deh-Salm metamorphic complex (DMC), late Jurassic in age, is exposed at the west of Nehbandan and at the the eastern margin of the Lut block. This is one of the exceptional outcrops of the Lut block’s basement in East Iran. The metamorphosed ultramafic rocks in this complex are identified and introduced for the first time, and are studied in association with the metabasites. Extensive field excursions as well as satellite image investigations represented the metabasites and metaperidotites of the DMC in three elongated and separate belts, parallel to the extension of the complex; we named the belts as the east, central, and the west belts. A tectonic, broken to dismembered units of greenschist, amphibolite, metaperidotite, serpentinite, and talc-schist can be recognized in the east and central belts, while, amphibole-calcschist is the most important rock constituent of the west belt in the Galugah complex. The main minerals in the rocks of these belts are hornblende, epidote, plagioclase (andesine), and sporadic pyroxene in the metabasite, and olivine, ortho-amphibole, augite, talc, and spinel in metaperidotite, respectively. On the basis of the geochemical studies, the protoliths of the mentioned rocks are classified in the basalt and peridotite groups. However, due to metamorphic and intense metasomatic processes, it is impossible to suggest a distinct origin and tectonic setting for the above metamorphic assemblages. The presence of mafic and ultramafic metamorphic rocks adjacent to the other rock units of the DMC indicates that the mafic-ultramafic rocks were initially emplaced in the eastern margin of the Lut block in a time before the late Jurassic, then they were metamorphosed in their recent arrangement.

In this study, the stress regime governing the Gorgan plain area (NE Iran) is calculated using inversion analysis based on earthquake focal mechanism solutions. In addition, a kinematic model is presented for hidden faults in this area. To gain this goal, the earthquakes occurred in this region and had available focal mechanism solutions were first selected for the inversion analysis. After applying the inverse analysis on the seismic data, the results indicate that there is a NW-SE (N42W)-trending tensional stress regime over the area. This is represented by the dominant local extensional structures such as shallow normal faults. Also the intermediate and minimum stress axes are close to horizontal direction, and indicate structures such as strike slip faults in the region. This is in agreement with most of the seismic dataset involved in the inversion analysis. By examining the previous studies and their results, more attempts were made to provide a kinematic model for this area. The Gharnaveh fault system comprises two sinistral faults (Marave-tappeh and Incheboroun), which are assumed to extend at eastern termination along an E-W direction under the Gorgan plain sediments up close to the Caspian Sea. Movement along these two faults under the sediments cause a clockwise rotation in the zone enclosed between them. Direction of this zone, which is affected by the faults, is consistent with the trend of regional seismicity. The proposed model can be used to account for many of the focal mechanism solutions of the earthquakes occurred, as well as the depth of the events. Most earthquakes occurred in this region are associated with the normal or left-lateral components. On the other hand, superficial structures such as mud volcanoes and fault-related folds (in the north of Aq qala) can be explained by this model, although lack of subsurface geophysical data in this area makes this model somehow speculative.

Bouin- Miandasht granitoid pluton with an area of 40 Km2, outcropped in the north of Bouin Miandasht- Aligoudarz road, was emplaced into Triassic to early Jurassic low to medium grade metapelitic rocks of Sanandaj - Sirjan structural zone. This pluton composed of alkali feldspar granite to leucogranite. For the first time, variation of anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) is applied to investigate magnetic fabric of this pluton. The Mean magnetic susceptibility values (Km in mSI) of the different rock groups of Bouin- Miandasht pluton are as follows: alkali feldspar granites (158), fine granites (120), coarse granites (166), and leucogranites (34). The lower Km values for the main compositions of this pluton (< 500 mSI) suggesting the paramagnetic nature of these granites. Biotite is the main carrier of magnetic properties in the studied rocks. The magnetic anisotropy (P %) varies from 1 to 15. Aalkali feldspar granites have the highest P value and show positive correlation with degree of deformation. Shape parameter of magnetic ellipsoid (T) values varies from -0.43 to 0.85 and most of the magnetic ellipsoids are oblate. Seventy five percent of specimens have positive T value. This subject indicates that magnetic ellipsoids are oblate and then foliation is prevailing, and also field evidence confirms this conclusion.

Mineral target identification and hydrothermally altered zone’s discrimination has been considered by many investors during many years of study. Numerous mineral targets can’t be recognized at pixel level. The problem of unmixing and resolving spectra in subpixel level of mixels (mixed pixels) was expressed with the birth of imaging spectrometry. On the other hand prober’s experiments have shown the improved results in ensemble of classifiers. This study have proposed the mixture of some target detectors and classifiers at both pixel and subpixel levels, which have been tested on the hymap airborne hyper spectral sensor, in Iran East. Results have shown that the proposed method has better performance than individual detectors.

Neyestanak bentonite deposit is located in northwest of Naeen, Isfehan province. This deposit is an alteration product of Oligocene tuff breccias. Mineralogical considerations of this deposit show that montmorillonite, kaolinite, and quartz are the principal minerals which are accompanied by lesser amounts of anorthite, calcite, chlorite, illite, albite, dolomite, microcline, orthoclase, sanidine, and halite. Mineral chemistry investigations testify to the similarity of this deposit with Wyoming-type bentonite deposits. Geochemical studies reveal that bentonitization of tuff breccias at Neyestanak is accompanied by depletion of Ba, Co, Zn, Y, Ni, Sr, Au, Ca, Fe, Mg, Mn, P, Ti, and Na, enrichment of Si, Th, As, Hf, Nb, and U, and leaching-fixation of K, Pb, Cs, Rb, Zr, and Cu. Geochemical analyses make clear that variation of Eu and Ce anomalies in this deposit were controlled by the degree of alteration of feldspars and oxidation potential of the environment, respectively. By considering the results obtained from this study, it seems that factors such as differences in degree of alteration intensity of parent materials, physico-chemical conditions of the environment, adsorption, incorporation in crystal structure, access to complexing ligands, and differences in degree of resistance of the primary minerals against alteration played prominent role in mobilization, distribution, and concentration of elements in this deposit.