History of Literature
Year:2024 | Volume:17 | Issue:1|Papers Count:12

IntroductionBooks of wonders are encyclopedic works influenced by the geography and natural phenomena of the ancient world which reflect the culture and popular beliefs through stories and myths. As this literary tradition evolved in the Persian language by the fifth century AH (11th century AD), it became a source of inspiration for storytellers. Drawing upon imagination, astonishment, and curiosity, these narratives captivated and entertained the audience. Studying some ancient stories, especially those with heroic themes, reveals that their authors paid significant attention to books of wonders. These narratives, rooted in and derived from the people's culture, were familiar and engaging for them. Furthermore, the writer of an incident-based story could develop and anhance the story by incorporating extraordinary events and elements, making encounters with wonders a substantial part of the narrative. Just as the narratives of Sinbad the Sailor and the Wonders of India played a role in the evolution of the wonders tradition, subsequently, narratives of wonders also entered fictional texts. AnalysisThe Darabnameh, written by Abu Tahir Tarsusi, is among the narrative texts of the late fifth or early sixth century AH (11th century AD) that are characterized by their storytelling style of narration. This approach allows the storyteller to develop and elaborate on the story according to their own taste and the preferences of their listeners. Tarsusi includes instances of such wonders in the Darabnameh in order to entertain the audience and appeal to their general interest in hearing extraordinary stories and events. This study seeks to document the wonders mentioned in the Darabnameh by examining Persian books of wonders from the fifth to the seventh centuries.The first part of the Darabnameh focuses on the story of Homay, the daughter of Bahman (Ardeshir), and her son Darab, while the second part revolves around the story of Alexander and Buran-dokht, the daughter of Dara. The adventures of Alexander, also mentioned in the Shahnameh, consist of a collection of wonders that he encounters during his journeys; therefore, the wonders of this story can be examined in both texts. The Garshaspnameh (composed in 458 AH) by Asadi Tusi (died around 465 AH) is another ancient epic text that includes a section dedicated to the wonders of the hero's journey in India. Scholars have previously noted the similarity between this section of the Garshaspnameh and ancient texts such as Wonders of India and Sinbad the Sailor. Hence, since the Garshaspnameh, like the Shahnameh, is considered a literary precursor to the Darabnameh and contains a significant portion dedicated to wonders, as well as numerous similarities with the Darabnameh in this regard, it has been referenced in the current study. Additionally, due to the significance of the stories in the books Wonders of India and Sinbad the Sailor in the compilation of ancient wonders narratives, as well as the attention given to the Garshaspnameh, these two sources have also been cited in the analysis of the wonders in the Darabnameh. Literature ReviewSeveral studies have been conducted on the Darabnameh; however, they do not specifically address our main topic. The article “Cryptic Capacities of the Darabnameh of Tarsusi” discusses the interpretation of certain strange phenomena from the perspective of cryptographers. The article “The Story of Darab in the Shahnameh and the Darabnameh” highlights the similarities between the Darabnameh and the Garshaspnameh in terms of wonder narration. The article “An Examination of Mythological Elements in the Darabnameh of Tarsusi” categorizes the myths and beliefs found in the Darabnameh into Iranian, Islamic, and Semitic myths, noting the presence of some of the extraordinary creatures in the Ajayeb al-Makhluqat (Wonders of Creation) by Tusi. MethodologyThe present research extracts, classifies, and examines the wonders mentioned in the Darabnameh, demonstrating that these instances are not entirely the inventions of the storyteller, but are influenced by earlier texts or their contemporaries. Therefore, the study investigates Persian books of wonders from the fifth to the seventh centuries as a source for the marvels and strange objects. These texts include Tuhfat al-Ghra’ib by Hasib Tabari, Ajayeb al-Makhluqat by Tusi, Ajayeb al-Makhluqat by Qazvini, and Ajayeb al-Dunya by Ibn Muqaffa’. Then, the research examines the wonders described in two earlier literary texts, namely the Shahnameh (Alexandrian section) and the Garshaspnameh, in order to identify the similarities with the Darabnameh. ConclusionRegarding the narrative style of storytelling in the Darabnameh, Tarsusi engages his audience by including various wonders, some of which appear in ancient Persian books of wonders from the fifth to the seventh centuries. Furthermore, by comparing the wonders mentioned in the Darabnameh with the Shahnameh, Garshaspnameh, and potential sources such as the Sinbad the Sailor and Wonders of India, numerous similarities emerge. These resemblances suggest that the wonders in the Darabnameh are not solely the creations of the storyteller, but are also present in earlier narrative texts; However, it is not possible to pinpoint the exact sources for the wonders of the Darabnameh, as the original source of Tarsusi's writing is not available, and the narrative style (storytelling) allows for the narrator's influence and adaptation.The wonders examined in this research include botanical marvels, objects, culture and customs, giants, places, and animals. Of the 26 wonders studied here, approximately fifteen are found in the Garshaspnameh and ten in the Shahnameh. These instances are also mentioned in books of wonders, indicating a close connection between these texts and narrative literature.

IntroductionIn the 18th and 19th centuries AD, during the Timurid era in India, the subcontinent achieved a prominent position due to the presence of nobles and people of culture, relying on the history of its civilization, as well as a correct understanding of Iranian-Islamic civilization and studying a mixture of these two cultures. Studying and analyzing the works of literary elites of this period in various fields such as linguistics, literary criticism, lexicography, description of texts and Persian grammar confirms this claim. In these works, the element of nationality and supremacy of Iranian writers such as Hazin Lahiji was taken into consideration, while Indian writers stood up to defend their opinions and literary collections. One of the great writers who was able to play an influential role in the subcontinent along with great people like Siraj al-Din Ali Khan Arzu, Ghulam Ali Azad Bilgrami, and Munir Lahori is Imam Bakhsh Sahbai. He has created works in the field of text description, rhetoric, linguistics, and literary criticism, each of which include new insights, and offer new paths for further explorations. The works left by Sahbai show his knowledge and mastery in the conventional techniques of speech, research in Persian vocabulary and terms, text research, perfecting the art of riddles, and the description of Persian books and messages. Despite the considerable achievements of Sahbai, no comprehensive research has been done about his life, works, and thoughts. This article aims to take a small step in introducing him and his contributions. Literature ReviewSo far, three books have been written in Urdu and three articles have been written in Urdu, English, and Farsi, some of which are hasty transcriptions of the contents of those books. The books, which are among the first-hand sources, are Imam Bakhsh Sahbai by Khawaja Muhammad Hamed, Sahbai: A Brief Introduction by Muhammad Ansarullah, and Imam Bakhsh Sahbai Ki Adabi Khadamat by Muhammad Zakir Hussain. In these three works, useful information can be obtained about Sahbai’s life, the circumstances of his martyrdom, and his students; Nevertheless, due to their rarity and being in Urdu, it is difficult for researchers to use them. although the authors of these works provide useful insights about Sahbai, they do not analyze his linguistic and literary views in the text and merely state the subject of the works.The scholarly article “'Bringing Spring to Sahbai's Rose-Garden': Persian Printing in North India after 1857” written by Zahra Shah and published in the book The Global Histories of Books: Methods and Practices deals with the life and works of Imam Bakhsh Sahbai, as well as the significant contributions of his students, especially Monshi-e-Din Dayal and Dehram Narin, and the services of these two loyal students in collecting and lithographic printing of the works of their master. Additionally, the author reveals the personal goals and ambitions of people like Nawab Sayyid Muḥammad Ṣiddīq Ḥasan Khān al-Qannawjī and the East Indian conspiracies in preventing the publication and promotion of literary works, especially those of Sahbai, in Persian.In 2018, Mehdi Rahimpour published an article titled “Sahbai” in the fifth volume of the Encyclopedia of Persian Language and Literature in the Indian Subcontinent. This article briefly discusses Sahbai's life and works, highlighting his literary and linguistic characteristics; however, the life events, the circumstances and reasons of Sahbai's martyrdom, his students and their influence in the subcontinent are not addressed. Another article written in Farsi is “Imam Bakhsh Sahbai: The First Persian Teacher of Delhi College” by Seyyedah Balqis Fatemeh Hosseini and published in the book Delhi in the Mirror of Persian Literature under the supervision of Rehana Khatun. Additionally, Pakistani writer Rukhsana Saba authored an article titled “Imam Bakhsh Sahbai: His Life, Works, and Death” published in the Urdu Development Association magazine, volume 95, number 1. Written in Urdu, this article is a summary of the three previously mentioned books and its important feature is the description of some events of the 1857 Delhi revolution and how Sahbai was martyred by the British. MethodologyIn writing this article and describing the events of Imam Bakhsh Sahbai's period, in addition to referring to the few sources written in Persian, we have cited various others in Urdu and English. We have tried to describe Sahbai's life, circumstances, and thought by referring to the available sources and criticizing and analyzing them to determine his scientific, linguistic, and literary position in the subcontinent. In parallel with the discussion of Sahbai's feelings and emotions, passions and desires, needs and wishes, we also examine his knowledge and scientific, cultural, and social relations. This article examines Sahbai's life and works focusing on several components: 1- The impact of genetic and other influential factors such as intelligence, talent, heredity; 2- The effect of education on the flourishing of Sahbai's talent; 3- The influence of the era and the living environment of Sahbai; 4- Experiences and mental abilities, knowledge, power of perception and thinking; 5- The role of Sahbai’s students in promoting the Persian language in the subcontinent; 6- Sahbai's works. DiscussionThe characteristics of the literary figures of the subcontinent in the 18th century, shaped by the rich culture ruling the area, include sobriety, contentment, appreciation, and etiquette. In addition to these characteristics, seclusion, unity of thought, and relentless work ethic which Iqbal Lahori describes as “blood of liver” are the notable behavioral and scientific attributes of this group, including Sahbai. In his treatise Mathmar, Khan Arzu examines different dialects, then investigates the works and status of Persian poets and raises the question “Are the works of Persian writers of India considered documented?”. On page 34 of his treatise, Arzu asserts that only those who have worked hard to become among the people of language and are “able to speak” are reliable. In fact, Sahbai was one of those eloquent speakers who spent his life until his martyrdom on the path of learning and writing numerous works in various fields such as text description, grammar, discursive trial and debate, and also in order to train scholarly students, each of whom was unique in his time. After Khan Arzu, literary criticism and linguistics reached new heights with Sahbai.ConclusionAs a result of his genius, research on Persian and Arabic texts and a remarkable memory, Sahbai is considered an opinionated and precise thinker, as well as an innovative critic.Sahbai's writings about Tarshizi's works such as Sharh-i Se Nathr-i-Zuhuri and Sharh-i Minabazar alongside his critical treatises like Nata’ij-i-Afkar, I‘la’-al-Haq, and Qol Faisal are of great importance among his prose works.

IntroductionDiwan-e Zulfaqar Sharwani demands special attention and research from various perspectives, due to its antiquity as well as the remarkable mastery of its author in poetic devices. However, it has not yet received serious examination in literary studies, evidently because there has been no printed version available. Among its many remarkable features is the inclusion of some rare words that cannot be found in other Persian manuscripts, or have not been listed in common Persian dictionaries, or if listed, are presented with no reliable evidence. The authors of this article aim to investigate these unexplored words. Literature ReviewIn 1934, a facsimile edition of Diwan-e Zulfaqar Sharwani was published in London by Edward Edwards. This collection has not been extensively studied in literary and linguistic research, since there has not been any letterpress printed edition of it, and even the facsimile version had not been easily accessible until very recently. Published articles about Zulfaqar Sharwani include an entry under his name in the Encyclopedia of the World of Islam (Moravveji, 2019) and “Majd-i Hamgar’s Name in Diwan-e Zulfaqar Sharwani” (Safari Aqqaleh, 2008). In the article “Thematization with Some Jewels in the Poetry of Azerbaijani Style” (Radfar and Esmaeili Tazekandi, 2011), the poetry of Zulfaqar Sharwani is examined from this thematic perspective. Additionally, Idgah Torghabei references some verses of Zulfaqar Sharwani in some of his works, such as the article “Pronunciation of Several Words in the Shahnameh” (2011). MethodologyThis article utilized library research methods. Having examined Diwan-e Zulfaqar Sharwani, words that were either absent or listed without evidence in the Dehkhoda Dictionary were identified and subsequently searched in available text corpora such as the Academy of Persian Language and Literature, Ganjoor and Noormagz websites, and Noor Digital Library to find reliable explanations for their meanings. DiscussionThe Diwan-e Zulfaqar Sharwani is estimated to contain slightly more than ten thousand couplets. Most of Zulfaqar's poetry is in the form of qasida, demonstrating the author’s mastery of composition; there are also numerous quatrains and ghazals in his collection. Zulfaqar extensively employs poetic imagery constructed with musical terms and concepts, indicating that he had a deeper understanding of music than a typical superficial acquaintance. Furthermore, the names of Iranian kings and pahlevans (champions) frequently appear throughout the work. Moreover, astronomical and astrological terminology plays a significant role in the poet’s imagery, suggesting his profound knowledge of these fields and possible education during his youth. His Diwan and poems also reveal the substantial influence of ancient pharmacology and medicine. Furthermore, Zulfaqar Sharwani also refers to numerous poets and writers preceding him such as Anwari, Azraqi, Am’aq, Sabir Termedhi, Onsori, Al-Ma’arri, Al-Farazdaq, Athir, and Falaki, and also mentions the works of people like Ibn Sina. He also speaks of Ferdowsi with great respect, acknowledging his influence on himself and considering him a mentor, believing Ferdowsi’s soul to be resting in eternal peace.In Diwan-e Zulfaqar Sharwani, we encounter both simple and complex words that are not found in other texts and are not recorded in dictionaries. A number of these words may be considered dialectal variants which were not used in formal Persian; however, some of these words may have entered the Diwan due to the influence of the scribe’s dialect rather than the poet’s. A few examples of these rare words include âxora (آخُره), angâm (انگام), ēlvâra (ایلواره), târâ (تارا), and dastvenǰan (دستونجن). ConclusionDiwan-e Zulfaqar Sharwani, an eloquent poet of the seventh century, is a comprehensive collection that, in addition to its literary and historical values, contains many rare and unique words. This article lists some of these words, emphasizing the necessity for Diwan-e Zulfaqar Sharwani to be printed with a critical and scholarly perspective, serving as a source of vocabulary for literary corpora. AcknowledgmentsThe authors express their utmost gratitude to Professor Ali Ashraf Sadeghi and other honorable members and officials at the Academy of Persian Language and Literature for providing access to most of the resources used in this article, without which this research could not have been possible.

IntroductionThe complete works of Shoorideh Shirazi, a poet from the latter half of the Qajar era, were published only once in facsimile (photo) format by his son, Hasan Fasihi, known as Ehsan, with the assistance of his grandson, Dr. Khusro Fasihi (son of Ehsan), in the year 2010 by the Publications of the Society for the Promotion of Persian Language and Literature of Iran, issue No. 23, in collaboration with the Institute of Islamic Studies at the University of Tehran-McGill, Canada. This publication was compiled into two volumes. Over the course of several years, the authors painstakingly observed and recorded poems inscribed on tombstones and epitaphs in cemeteries and sacred places in Shiraz which were attributed to Shoorideh. Furthermore, due to their interest, they also studied the poet's collection and realized that some of these poems remained unpublished. As a result, they decided to introduce these verses to literary enthusiasts in the form of a research article. Our fundamental objective in this article is to demonstrate that by studying non-written documents, one can observe verses by poets that may not be present in their collected works. This was indeed the case with Shoorideh, and we have managed to uncover 113 verses by this poet that are not found in his published collection. Although the authors could have referred solely to the two-volume printed collection of the poet, which currently encompasses the most comprehensive collection of his works, our scholarly rigor prompted us to examine all other works by Shoorideh to ensure that no poem or point escaped our attention. Similarly, this same number of verses was identified on epitaphs in Shiraz, although they were included in the published collection of the poet and their reprinting offered no additional benefit. Research BackgroundThe exploration of undiscovered verses is considered a necessary, interesting, and indeed beneficial research topic within the realm of literary studies. This aspect is particularly highlighted for poets of the past, especially those who are less recognized. However, contemporary poets can also be included in this subject. The scope of this research is broad enough to even allow for articles on poets such as Avicenna, Khwaja Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, and Amir Ali Shirnavai to be examined.Mansoor and Shamooshaki (2016) presented an article titled “Undiscovered Verses of Lamei Gorgan”. Imami, Shirmohammadi, and Dehghan (2019) published an analysis of verses by Rudaki Samarqandi. Heydarpour Najafabadi (2022) published an article on Unsuri Balkhi under the same title. Maste Ali Parsa and Kameli (2022) identified undiscovered verses from the ghazals of Jamal al-Din Abd al-Razzaq Isfahani, while Sara Saeidi (2022) discussed undiscovered verses of Rashid Vatvat in her article. Although articles can be found on other aspects of Shoorideh's poetry, no such material was found regarding the understanding of his poetry. This observation provides a promising new perspective for the present article. Research MethodologyThis research was conducted through direct source study, involving considerable effort over several years, mainly focusing on the tombstones of the ancient cemeteries of Shiraz, renowned as Dar al-Salam, from a historical perspective. The inscribed verses were carefully read, corrected, and ultimately compared with the available versions in the poet's collected works (Diwan). Subsequently, these verses were presented as undiscovered poetry. Additionally, the notable figures mentioned and referred to in the verses were identified to the extent possible and introduced beneath the poems.ConclusionShoorideh Shirazi is considered one of the prolific poets of the recent past, having compiled over several thousand lines of poetry in various literary forms within his Diwan. He was born in Shiraz in 1274 (AH) and became blind due to smallpox at the age of seven. Consequently, it is quite evident that a considerable number of his compositions did not reach written completion, as was the case here. In this article, we have discovered and presented 113 verses of his poetry from tombstones or inscriptions on city murals, and as mentioned, this endeavor will introduce several new faces from the cultural and artistic realm. After careful examination and exploration of the discussed inscriptions, several achievements have been made. The most significant achievement is the identification and introduction of over a hundred verses from the poetry of Shoorideh Shirazi. Additionally, the source of a colloquial expression or anecdote from Shiraz (the reason for swearing by the “two oppressed brothers”), whose historical significance was previously unknown, was identified through its narration. Furthermore, the genealogy and works of the Mazhab-Bashi family, which had been briefly mentioned in some texts before, were more comprehensively explored in this research, and even some unidentified tombs of theirs in Dar al-Salam were identified. The narrative of Saber Shirazi's prophecy regarding the reconstruction of the Taheri Mosque and its historical context was also elucidated and introduced for the first time. Moreover, the burial places of several notable figures and artists from Shiraz, along with their precise dates of death, were accurately determined, which had previously been missing from research sources. In conclusion, the importance of epigraphic reading and research demonstrates that discovering new insights and addressing some unknowns in the fields of literature, genealogy, personalities, and folklore is concealed within this domain, which undoubtedly contributes to insightful interdisciplinary research, particularly in the fields of social sciences, history, and literature

IntroductionMany of the diwans (poetic collections) of ancient poets have been lost for various reasons. This has led to reliance on tazkarehs (biographical works) and jongs (literary anthologies) for compiling the poetic works of the poets without preserved diwans. Although the existence of these tazkarehs and jongs is a great blessing, sometimes the authors' or scribes' errors result in attributing a poem to someone else. However, referring to tazkarehs and jongs is the only way to gather the works of poets without preserved diwans, albeit with caution. The oldest and perhaps the most authoritative tazkareh of Persian poetry is Lobab al-Albab; this tazkareh provides abundant and documented information about poets before the 6th century and serves as a source for other tazkarehs and historical books. Based on the editors' statements in Lobab al-Albab, this tazkareh was edited based on two manuscripts by Elliot and Sprenger, which Browne stated were from the 16th or 17th century AD, approximately the 10th or 11th century AH (See: Aufi, 1982: 7). And elsewhere, he states that: “In fact, none of the manuscript copies used as the basis possesses significant antiquity or scholarly precision” (ibid: 19). However, this lateness of the manuscripts of Lobab cannot be a reason for major alterations in the poems, and on this basis, it can be considered one of the most authentic sources for poems before the 6th century, as it was of interest to the authors of tazkarehs, and many later tazkarehs, literary works, and historical books have cited it. After Lobab, various tazkarehs and jongs such as Rawzat al-Nazir, Arafat al-Ashiqin, Atishkadeh, Aftab-e Alamtab, Ruz-e Rushan, Majales al-Nafais, and similar tazkarehs were compiled. Although the main benefit of these tazkarehs is the collecting poems and biographies of earlier poets, especially those without preserved diwans, they sometimes contain attribution errors. In such cases, the most logical approach is referring to the earliest of these tazkarehs and jongs and their consensus on a subject and presenting rational evidence to minimize errors. Literature ReviewThere are various articles and editions regarding Mahseti Ganjavi and the quatrains attributed to him. One of the oldest articles related to Mahseti is “Mahseti Nayshaburi” by Ali Akbar Qawim al-Dowleh, in which he mentions Mahseti Nayshaburi through a narration from Sultan Sanjar (Qawim al-Dowleh, 1960: 161-168). Among the most important articles about Mahseti is “Mahseti-shenasi” by Maryam Mosharraf, which discusses Mahseti's life and introduces two books about him (Mosharraf, 2005: 85-101). There is also an article titled “Stylistic Analysis of Mahseti Ganjavi's Quatrains” by Mohammad Reza Najjarian, which lists his stylistic characteristics (Najjarian, 2016: 241-268). There are more articles about Mahseti, but they are beyond the scope of this research. However, none of the aforementioned studies mention the attribution of the ghazal in question to Mahseti Ganjavi. Furthermore, this ghazal is not present in any of the editions of Mahseti's quatrains. Additionally, the authors of this research did not find any studies on the works and potential poems of Rafi' Marvazi. There has also been no research regarding the attribution of this ghazal to Saadi. MethodsThe method of data collection in the present research is library-based and note-taking. In this study, a descriptive-analytical approach is used to examine a ghazal attributed to three poets. Several manuscripts and printed copies have also been studied to reach the most accurate conclusion. DiscussionOne of the current problems regarding the poems of past poets is the wandering of some of these poems in different jongs and tazkarehs. A famous ghazal attributed to Saadi, and also included as a “mukhammas” (five-line poem based on another poem) on Saadi's ghazal in Helali Joghatayi's diwan, is recorded with Saadi's pen name. However, after examining Saadi's Kolliyat (complete works) and scrutinizing several manuscripts, we did not find this ghazal in Saadi's diwan. This ghazal, present in Helali's “tazmin” (incorporation), also has Saadi's pen name. It is attributed to Mahseti in the tazkareh Biyaz by Taj al-Din Ahmad Wazir and the jong Rawzat al-Nazir wa Nuzhat al-Khatir by Abdulaziz Kashi. A critical point that casts doubt on these attributions is the inclusion of this ghazal in Lobab al-Albab under the name of Rafi' Marvazi. Considering that Lobab precedes all of these works, the attribution of the ghazal to Mahseti and Saadi becomes questionable. Furthermore, in three instances in Jawame’ al-Hekayat, Tarikh-e Jahangushay-e Juvayni, and Makaram al-Akhlaq, a line or lines from this ghazal are mentioned; and given the historical periods of these books, its attribution to Saadi is impossible. Moreover, the attribution of the ghazal to Rafi' takes precedence over Mahseti, as the ghazal in question is attributed to Rafi' Marvazi in Lobab, which is earlier than the other manuscripts. ConclusionGiven that the ghazal in question is attributed to Rafi' Marvazi in Lobab al-Albab by Aufi, and since Rafi' Marvazi was a poet of the Seljughi era, while Saadi is later than him and even the author of Lobab, it can be said with certainty that this ghazal is not by Saadi. The inclusion of two lines from this poem without mentioning the author's name in Jawame’ al-Hekayat, Tarikh-e Jahangushay, and Makaram al-Akhlaq is Another reason to reject its attribution to Saadi. The attribution of this ghazal to Mahseti should also be doubted, as the oldest tazkareh closest to Mahseti's time has attributed it to Rafi' Marvazi. Additionally, this ghazal differs from Mahseti's poems in terms of stylistic and poetic form. Therefore, considering the refutation of its attribution to Saadi and the doubt in its attribution to Mahseti, it is logical and more accurate to trust Lobab and attribute it to Rafi' Marvazi.

IntroductionThroughout the history of Persian language and literature, the rubāʿī (quatrain) has enjoyed special popularity among both the lay and literati. This popularity has also introduced certain challenges and complexities to this poetic form over time. One such challenge is the issue of “wandering” rubāʿīs, that is, quatrains attributed to more than one poet. Studying these wandering rubāʿīs is only feasible with the aid of all available ancient sources.At various times, literature enthusiasts in Persian-speaking communities have compiled anthologies of different types of poetry and prose. The rubāʿī has often held a special place in such collections and anthologies. In addition to collections exclusively dedicated to rubāʿīs of various poets, many safīne compilers have allocated sections to rubāʿīs. The abundance and significance of scattered rubāʿīs in ancient safīnes necessitate independent research on them.The two manuscripts examined in this study are valuable examples of such sources. These two manuscripts, namely Manuscript No. 3775 from the Esma’il Sa’ib Library in Turkey and Manuscript No. F.738 from the Istanbul University Library, are originally two parts of the same Jung. According to the Esma’il Sa’ib manuscript, the Jung was transcribed in 681 AH (1282/83) by a literary figure, likely from Anatolia, named Yunus ibn Abi Bakr. Literature ReviewBoth fragments of this Jung have previously been introduced in detail and separately, with references to the connection between these two manuscripts. The Esma’il Sa’ib manuscript is one of the sources used by J. Bashari in his edition of Poetic Translation of Imam Ali’s Will to Imam Husayn, where he extensively introduces this manuscript in the introduction (Seyyed Hasan Ghaznavi, 681AH/1282-83: XXXVI-XLIV). Furthermore, S. A. Mirafzali, discussing a quatrain attributed to Khayyam found in this source, briefly describes and mentions this manuscript (Mirafzali, 1382/2003: 49). The manuscript from Istanbul University Library has been meticulously introduced by Mohammad Afshin Vafaee in his note on Ferdowsi’s satire in this Jung (Afshin Vafaee, 1400/2021: 163-172). Research MethodologyIn the present study, all rubāʿīs from the two fragments of this Jung have been edited and compared with other ancient sources to provide a comprehensive report on their attributions. Finally, an analysis of the status of these rubāʿīs from this ancient source is presented based on the collected information. DiscussionIn total, the two parts of this Jung contain 59 rubāʿīs (excluding those in Niṣāb al-Ṣibyān), with only four rubāʿīs in the first part (the Esma’il Sa’ib manuscript) having attributed authors. Among known rubāʿī collections, this Jung shows the closest affinity to Nuzhāt al-Majālis, sharing 16 rubāʿīs out of 59.As mentioned, the Jung contains four rubāʿīs with attributed authors, each of significant importance. Apart from the rubāʿī attributed to Khayyam, the other three which are attributed to Mahsati, Ayyuqi, and Kamal Isma’il do not appear in other ancient sources by these poets’ names, making this Jung unique in this regard.The scribe (compiler) of the Jung has generally refrained from naming the poets of the rubāʿīs, transferring most without attribution. In this study, the authorship of some of these rubāʿīs has been identified with the help of other sources, with Kamal Isma’il contributing the most with 15 rubāʿīs. Nonetheless, many rubāʿīs appear only in this source and are absent in other ancient texts. Recording and preserving these rubāʿīs in this Jung, even without the names of the poets, is valuable.The Jung contains rubāʿīs that share one or more half-verses with rubāʿīs in other sources, indicating that poets might have borrowed from each other—a practice common among early Persian poets, though more prominent and problematic in the rubāʿī form due to its brevity. These borrowings often led to confusion and uncertainty among literary scholars regarding the correct attribution of these rubāʿīs. ConclusionCompiling and editing collections of Persian and Arabic poetry and prose was widespread in Anatolia during the 7th, 8th, and 9th centuries AH (13th-15th centuries AD). The numerous surviving collections from this period and region suggest that the rubāʿī had a particular appeal among literature enthusiasts in that area. The number of rubāʿīs in the two parts of the Jung under study is significant relative to the remaining folios of the collection.The number of shared rubāʿīs between the studied Jung and Nuzhat al-Majālis may indicate Yunus ibn Abi Bakr’s use of this Jung. However, discrepancies in attribution and recording of some shared rubāʿīs prevent a definitive conclusion.As discussed, the attributions in this Jung are all significant and mostly unique. Additionally, the unnamed rubāʿīs found exclusively in it are noteworthy and important. Some of these rubāʿīs might be the work of local poets from the region where the Jung was compiled (Anatolia).

IntroductionThe effort of researchers in biography writing has led to a better knowledge of poets’ lives and works, but sometimes there are mistakes in the information. Therefore, it is necessary to review them to create a secure foundation by correcting errors or eliminating deficiencies. One of them is about Hosseini-e Shirazi.Hosseini Shirazi was a poet and mystic in Qajar era. He studied with his father, but the superficial sciences were little for him. He traveled searching for true knowlege and a spiritual teacher until he became Mirza Abo al-Qasem Sokut’s disciple in Shiraz and gained grace. After the death of Hosseini's father and the master, he became the successor and started preaching. Hosseini also composed Khamseh/Panj-Ganj (Vamaq and Azra, Mehr and Mah, Oshtornameh, Ilahinameh, and Vasf al-Hal). He also had a poem collection that is unavailable now. He died in 1249 AH and was buried in Shiraz.In the research about Hosseini's life and works, the authors found that Hosseini's birth year and mystical orientation were wrongly recorded in some biographies and books. There are different sayings about his hometown. In this research, an attempt has been made to answer the following questions: why is Hosseini's birth year in some books and certificates incorrect? Based on Hosseini's works, how can we find it and what are the opinions about his birthplace? Also, how close to the truth is Hosseini's attribution to Nematullahi in some newer texts? In the older sources and biographies, do they consider him a main member or follower of Nematullahi? In Hosseini's works, what signs and reasons are there to reject or prove this issue?Literature ReviewLimited research works have been published about Hosseini:Khamseh-e Hosseini (1324 AH), lithography of the first three Mathnavis of Khamseh, by Abdolhosein Zolreyasatein (1251-1332 AH). The correction of four mathnavis of Vamaq and Azra (1382), Mehr and Mah (1386), Oshtornameh (1386), and Vasf al-Hal (1392) from Khamseh-e Hosseini along with an introduction about the poet by Kavoos Hassanli and Kavoos Rezaei. Vasf al-Hal is the poet’s autobiography in verse, which is useful for knowing the his life. Hassanli and Rezaei have also written articles about Hosseini’s mathnavis. Jooya Jahanbakhsh has edited “The Explanation of Mowlavi’s Prose Prologues in Mathnavi” and added an explanation to that. “Introducing Ilahinameh by Hosseini-e Shirazi and the Influence of Mathnavi-e Ma’navi on It” (1401) is written by Masumeh Sadeqi and Mahin Panahi. The only PhD thesis about Hosseini is by Masumeh Sadeqi entitled Manuscript Correction and Structural Analysis of Ilahinameh Composed by Mohammad Hossein Hosseini-e Shirazi. Also, some literary biographies contain a brief description of Hosseini's biography and parts of his poems.In the introductions written by the editors on the four mathnavis of Vamaq and Azra, Mehr and Mah, Oshtornameh, and Vasf al-Hal, Hosseini's birth year is 1184 AH and his age is 65.  In the articles, 1184 is recorded but the researches show that incorrect. Hosseini's birthplace is also mentioned Karbala, while in some sources it is Shiraz. In the introduction to the revision of Oshtornameh and Vasf al-Hal citing Persian Poets and Scientists (Roknzadeh Adamiyat, 1337), Hosseini is considered “the head of the Akhawan Nematullahi dynasty”, while studies show it incorrect, too. MethodologyIn this research, with a descriptive-analytical and critical method, the poet's birth year has been determined by enumerating the definitive reasons with a careful examination of the first-hand sources about the poet's life and the documents obtained from Hosseini's works, especially Ilahinameh and Vasf al-Hal and the origin of the mistakes recorded in some biographies and books. To calculate the year, attention was paid to the chronograms of Ilahinameh and other signs placed in the text. The existing statements and the differences in the statements about the poet’s birthplace and the attribution of Hosseini to Nematullahi with solid reasons closer to the truth are mentioned. DiscussionThe year of Hosseini's birth is not mentioned in these works: Riaz al-Arefin, Majma al-Fosaha, Hadiqat al-Shoara, Tarayeq al-Haqayeq, Hosseini's Khamseh lithographic preface, Farsnameh Naseri, Al-Dhariyya, Reihanat al-Adab. Ebn-e Yusuf Shirazi, in The Manuscripts List of the Sepah-Salar High School Library, based on the chronogram of Ilahinameh and the age of the poet mentioned in the verses near the end of Ilahinameh considers the birth year to be 1184 AH; the mistake in the calculation of the numbers corresponding to the chronogram is quite obvious here and the most important reason for this mistake. According to the chronogram at the end of Ilahinameh, which indicates the year 1239, and the mentioning of 45 as the age of the poet, about 200 verses before the end, and also the record of 1237 as the date of composition at the end of the manuscript of Ilahinameh, it can be said that the poet’s birthdate is 1192 or 1194. The final verses of Ilahinameh mourning Abu al-Qasem Sokut, show that 1194 is more accurate.Hosseini's birthplace is recorded as Karbala in most of the biographies, but the poet spoke in such a way that it can be assumed to be Shiraz. Both DivanBeygi in Hadiqat al-Sho’ara and based on it Hassan Emdad in The Image of Persian Poets in a Thousand Years have recorded it as Shiraz; obviously, these are not enough reasons to prove that.Regarding Hosseini's mystical orientation, from the biography texts, only in Persian Poets and Scientists, Hosseini has been called “the head of the Nematullahi dynasty”. Hassanli and Rezaei have also mentioned it in the introduction to the revision of Oshtornameh and Vasf-al-Hal; however, none of the authors among the elders of the Nematullahi in other reliable sources such as Riaz al-Arefin, preface of Khamseh-e Hosseini and Tarayeq al-Haqayeq mention Hosseini as the head of the Nematullahi and they all introduce Hosseini as Abo al-Qasem Sokut’s disciple.According to Hosseini's statement in his works – and biographies – he had remained faithful in the devotion of Abo al-Qasem until his death. In the works written about Sokut, there have been hints about him as a member of Noorbakhshiya dynasty or Owaisiya and it is not far from the mind that Hosseini was also on the way of his master, or – as they have also said about Sokut – he was not a follower of any dynasty. Nematullahi’s followers were close to the Hosseini family, and perhaps the mistake of attributing Hosseini to Nematullahi was for that.ConclusionHosseini-e-Shirazi, a mystical poet of the Qajar era, was born in 1194 AH, according to the signs he placed in his works, especially Ilahinameh and Vasf al-Hal. He adhered to the principles of the Sharia, a mystic and the Twelver Shiite religion, and he was Abo al-Qasem Sokut’s disciple and remained loyal to him until his death.In the end, due to the existence of some mistakes and deficiencies in the registration and recording of information in the biographies, the necessity of revising the biographies and literary research about the lives of poets and writers is emphasized.

IntroductionThe curriculum of literature history has long faced challenges. Teachers have consistently encountered difficulties in teaching the subject, and students often perceive it as dry and monotonous. The aim of this study is a phenomenological exploration of the implementation of the literature history curriculum in high school. This research examines the lived experiences of experienced teachers regarding the challenges of the curriculum, teaching methods, teaching and learning opportunities, and assessment, to provide effective insights for other educators.Literature ReviewAccording to Fotuhi (2008), “the history of literature is the narrative of literary development and evolution over time, describing the causes and factors of these changes, as well as the interconnection among literary events” (32). The content of the literature history curriculum in the humanities field is no longer independent as it was in the past, but has now been integrated into the new book of literary sciences and techniques. Findings from various studies have confirmed the existence of challenges in the literature history curriculum from past to present. Research by Atrafi et al. (2013), Sadeghi (2015), Ghamari (2016), and Saadzadeh (2017) has demonstrated that the literature history curriculum faces challenges. Saadzadeh (2017) concluded that revisions are necessary for the 10th and 11th grade Persian literature textbooks in certain cases. Rahmanpour and Nili (2014) concluded in their research that while the literature curriculum cultivates desirable abilities in students, the findings indicate that the curriculum poses challenges in terms of content and teaching methods. Zardakhshoui (2019) examined the structure and content of Persian textbooks for the second year of secondary school. Shafaei (2021), in his research, defined the concept of lesson planning, its principles, and strategies for teaching Persian language and literature. Regarding the use of effective teaching methods in the literature course, Sabbaghian (2010), Arjmandi (2008), and Farhangi (2004) have concluded that to alleviate students' concerns about the extensive memorization of materials, the impermanence of content, the monotony of topics, and student passivity, introducing new methods and approaches such as demonstration methods and employing techniques to make the material more tangible in teaching literature history is essential. Reviewing the aforementioned studies indicates that the literature history curriculum faces challenges. Overall, none of the existing studies have employed the phenomenological method. Therefore, in addressing the challenges of the literature history curriculum, this research utilizes phenomenological methodology to explore the experiences of successful literature teachers.MethodologyThis research was conducted using a qualitative approach and employing phenomenological research method. The participants of this study included all teachers who had more than 10 years of experience in teaching literary history. Sampling was carried out based on purposive method and reached theoretical saturation of the categories. Eleven experienced teachers and educators were selected for interviews, comprising 8 teachers and 3 Persian language and literature professors. Semi-structured interviews were used for data collection. The data were analyzed through open and axial coding using the Strauss and Corbin method. To ensure the validity of the findings, the coding process and assigned codes were reviewed in multiple stages by curriculum specialists and Persian literature experts, and after necessary revisions, they were confirmed. The reliability of findings was ensured through agreement among coders, indicating high consensus among them.DiscussionBased on the findings and in response to the first research question, literature teachers' lived experiences regarding the challenges of teaching literary history content encompass three themes: lack of curriculum independence, inadequacies in textbooks and disorganized materials, lack of engagement. Addressing the second research question on teaching methods, literature teachers' experiences include three sub-themes: demonstration-based methods, activity-based methods, and transfer-based methods. Regarding the third research question on teaching and learning opportunities, literature teachers' experiences involve two sub-themes: student activities and teacher activities. Addressing the fourth research question on evaluation, literature teachers' experiences encompass two sub-themes: testing methods and scoring methods. Overall, this study identified four main themes, ten sub-themes, and 66 open codes.ConclusionThe results of this study indicated that the literature history curriculum faces challenges that literature teachers can address by utilizing the experiences of successful teachers in teaching methods, teaching and learning opportunities, and assessment. The findings of this research can be utilized by curriculum planners, authors, and literature teachers.

IntroductionFor a prolonged period, the historical studies regarding the concept of ‘city’ sufficed to examine only the physical aspects of urban spaces, despite it being a complex phenomenon. The primary steps those studies opted for included identification of the urban elements (e.g. plazas, bazaars, schools, palaces, sacred buildings, etc.), examination of the locations’ topography and the components’ interrelation within the urban-scape, analysis of the construction techniques and architectural features of each building, depictions within the context of architectural tradition/history, and discovery of their differences and innovations. Ultimately, if a concept was conceived, it stood at the intersection between a city and its economic, political, religious, and social affairs.Along with the developments in modern history, however, numerous other methods for examining and discussing various spheres of urban spaces gradually emerged; researchers noticed the significance in a different aspect of cities – the experiences and emotions intertwined with urban spaces. According to these scholars, ‘modern cities’ possessed certain characteristics that allowed further connection and interaction with the inhabitants, referred to as the ‘urban experience’. They realized, in a later stage of progress, that such experiences could be found not only in modern cities but also in pre-modern ones.The very same standpoint affected the historical studies regarding the Islamic cities – namely the Safavid Isfahan and the Ottoman Istanbul – as well as the emerging cities on the threshold of the early modern era, such as the Mughal India and the Islamic West; due to their peculiar characteristics, these cities were comparable to their western modern counterparts. One of these characteristics is the pursuit of pleasure in public urban spaces, a concept studied and attributed to Safavid Isfahan, particularly on Chahar Bagh Street, as well as its squares and bridges.In this article, through the versified travelogue Muhit al-Kunayn authored by Salik Qazvini, we aim to study one aspect of pleasure-seeking and explore this concept not in gardens, squares, and bridges, but in markets, not only in Safavid Isfahan but also in other cities of the era. Literature ReviewIn recent years, scholars have reexamined the notion of pleasure-seeking within Iranian urban settings, with a consensus that Isfahan, the capital of the Safavid Empire, is a pivotal point for this exploration. Isfahan's unique physical and social features have prompted researchers to view it as a city that accommodated a larger urban population and provided ample space for leisure activities. However, most research has focused on third-person perspectives, with less emphasis on personal experiences and memories within urban spaces. Kathryn Babayan's The City as Anthology (2021) marked a shift by exploring urban life through themes of love and friendship, reconsidering the concept of pleasure in Safavid Isfahan. Inspired by Babayan, this article revisits Salik Qazvini's travelogue, expanding the concept to other cities and highlighting the complexity of human experiences in urban environments.In “Discursive Images and Urban Itineraries” (2018), Emami examined the interplay between literature and urban landscapes, noting Qazvini's “spatial realism”. Additionally, Losensky's work, “Poetics and Eros in Early Modern Persia” (2009), provided a foundational basis by exploring Mohtsham Kashani's love experiences. Although Losensky focused more on rhetoric than city depiction, his approach helps us delve into Salik's experiences within urban spaces, particularly the bazaar. MethodologyThis article employs a multi-faceted approach to investigate the concept of urban experience within Iranian cities. Methodologically, it involves an analysis of primary sources, such as Salik Qazvini's travelogue, and secondary sources including works by Babayan, Emami, and Losensky on Safavid culture. The study utilizes a comparative approach to highlight similarities and differences in portrayals of urban life in Persian literature tradition. Additionally, contextual analysis situates texts within historical and cultural contexts. Moreover, a background layer incorporates the phenomenological method to interpret the text. DiscussionFor the purpose of the article, we first demonstrate how the travelogue reflects Salik Qazvini's personal experiences and poetic individuality within the context of Safavid-era poetry, particularly the “fresh style”. Then, through his experiences, we trace the unique urban pleasure of Salik, which involves the pursuit of beauty in the cities. We ponder upon all the cities that Salik visited—cities such as Qazvin, Tabriz, Isfahan, Shiraz, Baghdad, and various cities in India—and we reexamine these cities through his eyes, revealing the layers of his definition of the cities. In the process of deciphering the text, we come to realize that a significant part of the city's definition arises from the complexity of human emotions and subjectivity. This definition is intricately linked to the subjective experiences of its residents as much as it is to the objective elements of the city. While the physical backdrop of the city remains constant for everyone, the perception of the city often varies with each individual's unique experiences. We further explore this distinction by contrasting the experiences of several other poets with those of Salik. Additionally, we delve into the complexity of the poet's emotional attachment to the city, as exemplified through pilgrimage and pleasure in his travelogue. Through this exploration, we illustrate that the inner sentiments of individuals encountering the phenomenon of the city are varied and encompass a diverse spectrum of emotions. ConclusionStudying Safavid-era poetry, known as the “fresh style”, reveals that poets of this period skillfully blended tradition with innovation to explore earthly issues and everyday experiences. Salik Qazvini's travelogue stands out for its portrayal of the city as a primary setting for personal experiences and emotions. Using various poetic forms like couplet-poem, ode, lyric poem, eulogy, and city disturber, along with themes of mysticism, Sufism, and romance, Qazvini constructs the cityscape from his unique perspective. He depicts the city as a realm for pleasure and intellectual exploration, intertwining its beauty with that of the beloved, reflecting the personal and social experiences of its inhabitants.The second discussion addresses the poet's complex subjectivity towards the city. Qazvini expresses various emotional layers when encountering urban landscapes. His travelogue narrates his journey both as a pilgrim and an observer, blending religious and worldly experiences. These intertwined aspects of urban life illustrate the multifaceted nature of human experiences within dynamic urban settings. AcknowledgmentsThe first author is deeply indebted to Rasul Jafarian for introducing her to the poetic sources for architectural reading and for providing continuous guidance in reading and analyzing the text over more than three years.

IntroductionThe confrontation between tradition and innovation in contemporary times caused severe friction between traditionalists and modernists. These confrontations, which were somewhat natural and inevitably existed throughout history, contain benefits and harms that need to be analyzed with the passage of time and the fading of those years. Reviewing those opinions can in turn shed light on our literature in general and literary criticism in particular. Criticisms and opinions of traditionalists and modernists were sometimes mixed with extreme prejudices and unnecessary rejections and denials and sometimes had signs of reality. In any case, the reviews and comments of contemporary poets about ancient literature have always been worth studying. Some tried to destroy Iran's past literature to highlight their innovations, and on the other hand, poets who were fond of classical literature tried to deny new poetic innovations - such as Nima's poetry. Among these two spectrums, there were poets who were both attached to tradition and striving for innovation. In the meantime, it is important to find people who have judged literary works regardless of unnecessary prejudices, which can be a model for fair, scientific criticism and free from false factions in the contemporary era. Simin Behbahani is one of these people who, in addition to being proficient in the field of poetry writing in various formats (especially in the field of ghazal, she has been given the title of “Ghazal’s Nima” (Haqshenas, 1991: 153)), is one of the poets whose opinions and thoughts about classical poetry contain valuable and important points which can be used as a model in the practical criticism of poetry. Based on this, considering the importance of the topic, the main issue of the current research is to investigate Simin's views on Iran's literary past. For this purpose, Simin Behbahani's books, interviews, notes, and conversations have been examined and analyzed in order to present and explain her arguments, opinions, and thoughts about classical poetry.  Literature ReviewAs far as the author has searched, there has been no research evaluating Simin Behbahani's view of Iran's literary past. In some books, references have been made to Simin's critical personage. Ahmad Abu Mahboob (2008) discussed this feature in the book Green Maple Cradle, but he did not investigate her opinions about Iranian classical poetry. Kamyar Abedi (2000) made a brief reference to Simin's literary reflections in his book Singing Ghazal. He also mentioned the power of Simin's analysis in the book Simin Behbahani, Poet and Civil Struggler (2018), which is a rewrite and a new edition of the book Singing Ghazal in which he mainly pays attention to Simin's opinions about contemporary poets. In Simin's festschrift titled A Woman with a Flower Skirt (2004), some notes briefly mention Simin's knowledge and literary studies. Reviewing the articles shows that most of the published articles have been written about the form and content of her poetry, and they are not in line with the topic under discussion. Only in one or two articles are there references to the discussion we are looking for: In the article “The Contexts and Signs of Simin Behbahani's Familiarity with Ferdowsi's Shahnameh and How She was Influenced by It”, Ghodratollah Zarouni (2023) investigates Simin's familiarity with the Shahnameh and its influence on her. In the article “Poetics Conceptions of Forough Farrokhzad and Simin Behbahani; Textual and Metatextual”, Parsa Yaqoubi et al. (2019), have investigated the opinions of Forough Farrokhzad and Simin Behbahani about what poetry is, who is a poet, etc; but they have not engaged with the subject we are discussing. In general, none of the published works have investigated and classified her views on Iran's literary past. Methodology In this research, with an analytical-critical approach, an attempt has been made to examine and analyze the opinions and thoughts of Simin Behbahani about Iran's literary past. To achieve this goal, discussions, notes, and works related to this issue have been studied and the desired samples extracted, examined, and analyzed.  DiscussionIn the current research, an attempt has been made to extract, categorize, and analyze Simin Behbahani’s views on the literary past of Iran by examining all available sources about her. Simin Behbahani is one of the prominent and innovative poets of contemporary times who, unlike some contemporary poets who considered classical literature an obstacle to their innovations and tried to destroy it with their opinions, did not consider tradition and classical literature to be an obstacle to innovation. She believed that disconnecting contemporary poets from the traditions and literary past of Iran is ignoring the linguistic, cultural, and literary capacities of the past, and without those supports and roots, no poet can create a lasting work. Due to living in a scientific and cultural atmosphere and the special conditions of her life, which were discussed in the introduction of the article, Simin knew the past literature of Iran well and was familiar with the opinions and views of prominent contemporary researchers and writers. For this reason, her opinions and views were the result of a mature and cultured mentality that was mixed with poetic taste and talent. The value of Simin's opinions about classical poetry shows itself more when it becomes clear that these opinions and viewpoints are the result of deep reading of classical texts and reflection on them, not just opinions based on prejudice and glimpses without support. It is true that Simin's interpretations and criticisms also take on a tasteful color in some cases, but these analyses originated from a matured taste whose interpretations are based on the atmosphere that governs the works. Simin's criticisms and analyses of classical works sometimes take into consideration the stylistic aspects of other periods of Persian literature, which is very valuable in its own way and shows the scope of Simin's studies in Persian literature in general.  ConclusionIn general, Simin's view of Iran's literary past is moderate and accompanied by praise and respect. She always praises Iran's literary heroes and their works and points out the need to connect with the literature of the past and make use of it. Along with these praises, she also lists some issues that hinder innovation, including the need to use a new meter and express the political and social issues of the poet's time, something that, in Simin's opinion, has not been paid much attention to in some past periods. Since Simin came from the heart of the poetry institution and the community of poets, her opinions and evaluations can be useful both for the academic community and a light for contemporary young poets, because she is one of the pioneers in the field of transformation in modern sonnet who still has many followers. In the end, Simin, whether in the field of criticism and opinion or the field of poetry and creativity, has almost never separated from the tradition, and at the same time, she has not remained in the tradition; rather, based on it, she has built her theories and achieved innovation in the field of poetry.

IntroductionThe term “dystopia” was coined in 1868 in reference to authoritarian societies, and it often relates to totalitarian regimes (Vieira, 2010: 5&16; Baccolini & Moylan, 2013: 4-7). It was first used in English literature in 1747, albeit with the different spelling of “dustopia”, to describe an anti-utopia. In 1952, the word was used as the opposite of an ideal society, or utopia. The first half of the twentieth century saw the publication of books such as We, Brave New World, and 1984, all of which contained dystopian themes. Thus, the dystopian genre gained traction during the Cold War and went on to garner more popularity during the 1960s and the twenty-first century. While the European dystopias showed the negative impacts of totalitarian regimes, the modern Iranian and Arabic literature investigated the causes of apathetic societies. Dystopia as a genre exists sporadically in modern Iranian literature, but contemporary Arabic literature focuses on the genre more consistently (Claeys, 2022: 53–54; Elmeligi, 2023). MethodologyThis paper is qualitative, analytical, and exploratory, which means the implemented method is qualitative data analysis using the MaxQDA 2018 software. Discussion3.1. Socio-Political Discourse The novel Vaght-e Taghsir (2003), written by Mohammad Kateb, analyzes the intersection of cultural and socio-political elements with human consciousness and imagination. The story is set during the final days of Khatami's government and the rise of fundamentalism in Iran, which represents the decline of cultural freedom and progress and the beginning stages of Iran’s political isolation. Kateb creates a dystopia made up of both fact and fiction by combining real and mythological elements in his story. The main character, Hayat, plays a pivotal role in carrying out public executions and torture. He is in charge of the prison and torture center, slowly turning his show of power into a ritual. Other people also participate in these displays of violence, either as spectators, accomplices, or victims. Hayat himself seems to wear many different faces and fragmented identities, which represent the complexities of the society to which he belongs.Ahmed Saadawi’s novel Frankenstein in Baghdad (2013) takes place against the backdrop of the American attack on Iraq and the 2005 civil war. The book focuses on the concept of war as a surreal and futile reality for everyone involved, while blending dystopian and gothic elements. The main character, Hadi al-Attag, collects the body parts of the victims of war to create a creature called Shasmeh (whatsitsname), who seeks revenge on those responsible for his death. Saadawi paints a harsh and scathing picture of Middle Eastern sectarianism, as well as geopolitical and governance weaknesses. Saadawi focuses on the consequences of war and the presence of alien forces, which are considered undesirable elements of dystopia.Gottlieb describes the government as the main player in the dystopia (Gottlieb, 2001: 7, 16), while Agren believes that global power does not necessarily correspond to the government (Agren, 2014: 11). In Vaght-e Taghsir, the government acts as the main perpetrator, while in Frankenstein in Baghdad, ordinary citizens appear as the main players in the dystopian landscape. The government in Frankenstein in Baghdad, however, plays a main role in the formation and strengthening of Frankenstein by creating and supporting armed and religious forces and inciting hatred and division between different classes, castes, and religions.In Vaght-e Taghsir, the author examines the socio-political status quo by using symbolism. The name of the city, Hekmataneh/Hegmataneh, has both dystopian and utopian aspects, therefore serving double meanings (Kateb, 2009: 251-252). Frankenstein in Baghdad depicts the chaotic and violent situation that followed the overthrowing of Saddam Hussein in Baghdad and examines the historical and political events that have shaped Iraq’s recent history. 3.2. Dystopian discourse Bakhtin believed that novels are polyphonic phenomena and authors can use a variety of different points of view to create a coherent and integrated artistic system (Holquist, 1990: 261-262). On the contrary, Agren emphasizes the importance of the psychological experiences of the individual in creating dystopia (Agren, 2014: 34). In Vaght-e Taghsir, the characters are searching for their true identities, and this search and their conflicting feelings about their fragmented identity are reflected in both their internal and external dialogues. In Frankenstein in Baghdad, the dialogue gives the characters depth and identity. In both cases, rites and rituals play an important role in shaping dystopian society as well as helping promote obedience and subjugation (Torrisi, 2015: 55-57, 72, 80).3.3. Character Psychology In Frankenstein in Baghdad, fear and anxiety have become internalized elements in the story, creating an atmosphere filled with paranoia and terror that can be felt at all times and in all spaces, even inside homes and on deserted streets. This is while in Vaght-e Taghsir, an atmosphere of disgust and terror prevails in prisons, homes, and cemeteries. The main characters in both texts, such as Hayat and Abro in Vaght-e Taghsir and Hadi and Mahmoud in Frankenstein in Baghdad, play dynamic and proactive roles and move the story forward. Women also have a strong presence in these texts and take proactive roles and effective stances in the face of dystopian adversaries. These varying interactions and representations help form complex societies that include different and conflicting groups with their own goals and ambitions.3.4. Spatiality Space plays an important role beyond just the background for the events of the story in contemporary literature. It becomes an artistic element that can shape the themes and meanings of the story (Bahrawi, 1990). In Vaght-e Taghsir, the spaces are mostly unspecified and generic, which allows the reader to relate the story to real life (Kateb, 2009). Spaces like the square and the cemetery, however, find different meanings, taking on a new identity that represents power and resistance. In Frankenstein in Baghdad, Baghdad is not the only location in the story; there are other secondary locations that take on different meanings and play a role in the plot of the story (Saadawi, 2013).Foucault's heterotopias, which are conflicting, othered, or sacred spaces, act as spaces where conflicting characters, discourses, and identities are brought together in these two novels (Foucault & Miskowiec, 1968). In Frankenstein in Baghdad, for instance, the characters and spaces are both placed in a third space where the line between reality and fantasy is blurred. This surrealism improves the complexities of the story (Saadawi, 2013).3.5. EmbodimentPhilosophy views the body and the mind as connected entities through neurological and cognitive structures that form the basis of thought (Lakoff and Johnson, 2017). The body does not simply reflect the state of society; it is also a place for recording biological experiences and social supervision (Zarghani et al., 2018). In these texts, the body itself is used as a place to display power. In Vaght-e Taghsir, the body is the meeting place of conflicting thoughts and beliefs; it is a field for displays of power. This is whilst in Frankenstein in Baghdad, the body is the center of attention, and body parts become symbols of justice and revenge. Therefore, as can be seen in these texts, the body itself can represent social and cultural complexities (Hajizadeh and Hosseini, 2017). ConclusionVaght-e Taghsir is a postmodern novel that employs self-referential metafiction and intertextuality as techniques to showcase alternative realities through various points of view and storylines that result in an open ending. Likewise, Frankenstein in Baghdad employs dystopian landscapes by relying on the repetition of history and the uncertainty of citizens.These two novels have some differences in their depiction of socio-political status: Vaght-e Taghsir paints the government as a dominant and oppressive institution, while Frankenstein in Baghdad depicts a powerless government. Both novels rewrite conflicting experiences in different time periods and showcase the constant efforts of characters and the overall society to escape the status quo. The heroes in these stories accept their fate head-on and without resistance. In conclusion, these stories combine the dystopian and utopian discourses and show how difficult it is for Middle Easterners to escape their status quo in the 21st century.

IntroductionFreedom is considered one of the most fundamental concepts of the constitutional revolution and has a high frequency in the literature of this period. The political literature of the constitutional era has also been called Protest Literature. Protest is the most important identity indicator of constitutional period poetry, protesting autocratic rulers who denied the most obvious human rights to the people. Farrokhi Yazdi is one of the famous poets of this era. By analyzing Farrokhi’s political and critical poems, this research tries to explore new angles of his freedom-seeking discourse and to answer the question why freedom is the most important political and social concern of the poet in this period. The research findings show that the power relations in Farrokhi’s freedom-seeking discourse are formed based on a two-way conflict. On one hand, it depicts the struggle of freedom seekers against the heralds of tyranny, and on the other hand, reveals the class discrimination between the rich and the poor in Iran’s heterogeneous society during the constitutional era. Farrokhi’s poetic and realistic language in recreating this two-sided and heterogeneous conflict reveals other aspects of important events of the constitutional revolution to the audience. In Farrokhi’s political thought, freedom precedes other fundamentals of constitutionalism. In the poet's worldview, class freedom and the freedom of the masses precede individual freedoms. Farrokhi’s perception of freedom is more political than individual; his definition of freedom gains meaning in opposition to tyranny.                                                                                                                                                                                                                Literature ReviewMuch research has been done about freedom in Farrokhi Yazdi’s protest poetry. Sadeghzadeh (1387) has studied reformism and modernism in Farrokhi’s political poems. Based on the content of the poet's poems and writings, he concluded that Farrokhi is one of the modernist and intellectual poets of the constitutional era, who has used Western modernity extensively in his writings and poems. Alizadeh and Khosravi (1401) examined freedom in Farrokhi’s poetry from a legal perspective and concluded that in his poetry, freedom is used in the sense of “having the right” on the one hand, which cannot be restricted, and on the other hand, Farrokhi considered it as one of the governing principles of democracy, which has a legal burden and needs to be interpreted in the framework of the constitution. So far, there has been no independent research on the analysis of Farrokhi’s protest poems based on Fairclough’s critical discourse analysis, and the present study is the first of its kind. MethodologyThis research has selected, extracted and analyzed Farrokhi’s protest poem with the theme of freedom, which had the possibility of critical discourse analysis in a descriptive-analytical way and citing library sources. Although the method of the current research is qualitative, a quantitative perspective has also been considered in referring to Farrokhi’s protest poems. Theoretical Basis Discourse analysis is an interdisciplinary and qualitative orientation, first used by English structuralist linguist Zellig Harris in 1952. Harris and other structuralist linguists examined the text at a level beyond the sentence, but critical analysis paid attention to the inequality of power in societies and challenging the institution of power. In the approach of critical discourse analysis, the relationship between power and ideology is investigated in the context of the text. Norman Fairclough’s theory of critical discourse analysis is one of the most famous theories in discourse analysis, which while dealing with the category of power, domination, and ideology in the situational context of the text and paying attention to the hidden and visible layers of texts, including literature and poetry, tries to understand power relations on three levels: description, interpretation, and explanation. DiscussionA) Description LevelAt this level, Fairclough analyzes the experiential, relational, and expressive values ​​of the text in terms of vocabulary and grammar. In the description section, a text is examined at three levels: vocabulary, grammar, and text structures. Words in the speech chain are elements that give a certain meaning and ideological load to the text. In his protest poems, Farrokhi Yazdi uses more words that can reflect his revolutionary nature and the experimental values ​​of his freedom-seeking discourse. Variable phrasing is another characteristic of lexical experimental values, in which the speaker has a different understanding and interpretation of the social events of his era. Farrokhi uses this feature for harsh criticism against Reza Shah’s government. From Farrokhi's point of view, Reza Shah's rule was a continuation of the tyranny of the Qajar period, and for this reason, he stubbornly opposes it. People are described with less formal or euphemistic words and expressions and most of Farrokhi's descriptions have a negative attitude to people, personalities, and parties.B) Interpretation LevelInterpretation is a mixture of the content of the text and the perceptions of the interpreter. According to Fairclough, interpretations are a combination of the contents of the text itself and the mentality of the interpreter. At the interpretation level, things like the story of the text, participants, relationships between participants, and connection (the role of language in advancing the story) are discussed. The main story of Farrokhi Yazdi’s protest poems reflects the political and social conditions of Iran's tyrannical society during the Qajar and Pahlavi eras. There are three categories of actors and participants in Farrokhi’s freedom-seeking discourse. First, the poet who is the narrator; second, constitutional revolutionaries; and third, the enemies and opponents of the constitution. The position of activists in Farrokhi’s discourse is the position of people. In terms of the function of language, Farrokhi’s poem is a monophonic narrative in which the audience only hear the voice of the poet who describes all the events and incidents like an all-knowing narrator. Farrokhi’s narration of freedom-seeking discourse is full of situations such as despair, hope, victory, defeat, struggle, and imprisonment which are reproduced in his poetic statements.C) Explanation LevelAt this level, the mutual influence of text and society on each other is examined. Farrokhi’s environmental conditions were inflamed and full of contradictions and inequality in the Qajar era. Injustice and lack of freedom and law caused Farrokhi to have a harsh and radical approach towards autocratic rulers. For this reason, his poetry is influenced by the events of the constitutional revolution and the fears and hopes resulting from it. ConclusionThe research findings show that Farrokhi uses all the possibilities and linguistic capacities to stabilize the political tendencies of the constitutionalists and tries to educate the people about the concept of freedom and its place to introduce social struggles in a society where tyranny is rampant. Farrokhi, who is a constitutionalist, introduces the constitutionalists as revolutionary, modernist, and intellectual figures who have no other goal than the elevation and development of the country by expanding the discourse of freedom. Also, by highlighting the historical and cultural events and mentioning the mythical characters and symbols of Iran, it depicts the confrontation between the heralds of freedom and tyranny to make an acceptable and popular face of the constitutionalists who fight against the incompetence of the Qajar kings and the tyranny of Reza Shah.