Culture of Islamic Architecture and Urbanism Journal
Year:2018 | Volume:4 | Issue:1|Papers Count:6

The culture of a city is the pattern that at once represents the city as a whole and the semantic atmosphere or context in which it develops and evolves. In this respect, a city’ s culture is nothing other than its system of meanings – of meaningful symbols or symbolic meanings – and their formal/physical patterns. An essential strategy to identify an urban culture is to take account of the various types or forms of urban spaces as well as their meanings and concepts. Therefore, it seems necessary to gain a comprehensive understanding of the stages of development/ evolution of urban spaces as well as the relation between representations of meaning and culture in a given period. With a cultural approach to the research subject and an exploration of the city from a cultural point of view, we aim to categorize the effects of culture on the formation of urban structures and forms. By analyzing the meanings and concepts of structural urban elements, we intend to present a reading of the formal/physical concepts and meanings of the case, i. e., the city of Ardabil. Urban spaces are thought of as influential cultural environments that may be effective in shaping community infrastructure. Throughout history, there have been many cities across the world that used to be important for short or long periods due to political, social or cultural reasons, thus, ranking high among cities. One of them is Ardabil, which used to be of special importance for its political and cultural status and reached its culmination in the Safavid era. Ardabil was deemed a sacred place by the Safavid Dynasty. Because of Sheikh Safi al-Din’ s Shrine, the religious status of the city was multiplied. It should be noted that Ardabil acquired a new and quite unprecedented significance in the Safavid era. The present research addresses the conceptual position of the city of Ardabil during the Safavid era, which is considered by many Iranians as the era of the resurgence of Shiite Islam. The main question is: How did culture manifest itself in the formation and development of the city of Ardabil in the Safavid era? To answer this question, we represent the meanings of culture in three major urban spaces of Ardabil, including Sheikh Safi al-Din’ s Shrine, the Bazaar and Jom’ e (Jame’ ) Mosque. The main purpose of this study is to analyze the meanings of prominent spaces in Ardabil city from a cultural perspective, in particular, through representing the meanings and concepts of the city’ s culture in the Safavid era. The study uses an exploratory method and literature review procedures to present an analysis based on Stuart Hall’ s “ Circuit of Culture” for representations of meanings. The findings indicate that the holy concept of Sheikh Safial-Din’ s shrine as Safavid governance origin; bazaar as a main part of urban life and city magnificent; and Jom'e mosque as a religious center conceptually consolidating urban spaces represent the meaning of urban spaces. Representation of spatial meanings in the Safavid-era Ardabil was closely linked to power relations and, thus, the city’ s culture reflected the religious system, which was based on the legitimacy of the Shiite Safavid rule.

Domes and their proportions play an important role in the visual aesthetics of Islamic architecture. Despite the importance of this element of Iranian architecture, no significant studies have been conducted on its geometric proportions. Previous researches are mainly concerned with their history, drawing methods, formal typology and structural-climatic characteristics. The first question of the study concerns the concinnity of the dome and the variables that can reproduce its form and formal proportions. The second question, which in fact constitutes the main research question, is: What is the relationship between the proportions of variables composing the geometric form of the dome and people’ s aesthetic preferences? And, to compound this question further, what is the approximate value of this relationship in numerical proportions? To answer these questions, the research was conducted in two stages. The primary stage involved evaluations to identify the variables that, through being changed, could help reproduce the greatest number of dome types. One the one hand, drawing data from previous studies did not suffice to achieve this goal. On the other hand, controlling or limiting these variables was crucial for obtaining a numerical proportion between them. The second stage involved a survey design which was administered in two phases: pre-test and main test. The main test was designed as a multiple-choice computer survey in which the respondents were asked to select the dome which they perceived as the most beautiful from among a set of four presented domes, with varied proportions of one dome category based on the findings. In choosing the domes for the survey, we took care to select the types of domes whose forms were more familiar to our Iranian sample of respondents. Three pre-questionnaires were also distributed to control the effects of such factors as mode of presentation, light and materials. We first studied and categorized the concept of proportion, the types of domes and effective variables in the reproduction of the outer form of the domes and, then, evaluated the aesthetic experience of the respondents through presenting manipulated visual stimuli of “ shoulder” and “ base” sections of the dome. The data were fed into IBM SPSS Statistics and modelled by MANOVA and repeated measure ANOVA. The participants included an available sample of 86 students (f=40, m=46; majoring in architecture=41, majoring in other fields=45) selected from among the students of all faculties at Tabriz Islamic Art University. The participants took part in our exclusive experiment designed and coded with OpenSesame, an open-source software product. The findings suggest the existence of a significant relationship between the aesthetic preferences of the respondents and the proportions composing the dimensions of the domes, especially the ones with a “ base” section (2± 0. 06). This study shows that the beauty of Iranian-Islamic domes is not a coincidence; but rather, it follows a certain set of aesthetic principles and rules.

The contemporary theoretical literature seems to be characterized by a lack of focus on reading architectural works, in particular, visiting users’ readings of contemporary Iranian mosques. The mosque, as an important symbol of the Iranian-Islamic architecture, endows the field with a special sensitivity. In our exploration of visiting users’ readings from the perspective of form and symbolism as the central focus of the present study, we consider the mosque as a structure composed of form, meaning, apparent manifestations and abstract concepts. Today, for various reasons, we are witness to the emergence of mosques whose users lack a shared understanding of them. Therefore, an analysis of how visiting users read an architectural structure and the factors affecting the reading can help clarify this process. It can also help us provide effective strategies for designing mosques with divine symbols whose references/ meanings can be optimally read or deciphered, by the average visiting user. The present study is a fundamental research with practical objectives and it features a descriptive-analytical design in terms of its general approach and procedures. First, we developed a model for reading contemporary mosques through a review of literature and a survey of experts’ viewpoints. We used the model as the basis of inclusion into the field study. Then, we evaluated and compared visiting users’ readings of nine cases selected from among 180 contemporary mosques in Tabriz as located on a spectrum of similarity/ dissimilarity to traditional mosques. Questionnaires, interviews and observation were used to collect the required data. The results showed that, in addition to apparent and symbolic elements such as domes and minarets, abstract concepts such as peace of mind and spirituality play an important role in the reading of contemporary mosques. It seems that Shiite jurisprudential decrees, as our criteria for analyzing user readings, include certain principles for evaluating some of the elements involved in reading such as style, patterns, embellishments, minarets and altars. Although some important elements in the reading of Iranian mosques – including but not limited to domes, porches and forecourts – cannot be evaluated with the above-mentioned criteria, they are necessary for a better reading/ understanding of the meanings associated with contemporary mosques due to their recurrence and assimilation in the historical course of the evolution of mosques.

Although globalization refers to the global scale, as in contrast to the local/cultural dimension, it is subject to cross-cultural interaction. Hence, globalization requires global thinking based on universal concepts which allow for cross-cultural dialogue and understanding. The interaction between regional thoughts is a sine qua non of global thinking and it requires the extension of thinking from the local to the global scale. At this larger scale, there is no way of avoiding encounters and dialogues with others. Although dialogue is made possible via language and translation, agreement would be impossible without shared concepts and mentalities. Thinking and speaking about Islamic architecture is not an exception either. Speaking of Islamic art and architecture at the global scale is associated with certain challenges. One important challenge is the misunderstandings surrounding the meanings of these terms. The greater portion of these misunderstandings is rooted in Oriental studies. On the one hand, the debates on such terms inside the Islamic world are subject to implied assumptions that may not be acceptable to the outsiders. On the other hand, both architecture and Islam are complex and controversial concepts, giving rise to disagreements among experts. In addition, the cultural aspects of these concepts, as rooted in their nature, pose the challenge of cultural relativity, which is an obstacle to mutual understanding at the global scale. It is no surprise, then, that the concept of Islamic architecture is misunderstood in global dialogues. Considering all this, if these terms are to be discussed and thought globally, such barriers must be overcome. To have a global dialogue about Islamic architecture it is necessary to rethink its constituent elements, i. e., Islam and architecture, in a more profound and rational way. One way to rethink a concept is to consider its dictionary definition(s) so as to better understand the meanings that it conveys. On the one hand, language is a cultural phenomenon which serves as the main medium of intra-and inter-cultural communication; so, a comparative, cross-cultural, linguistic study can help us better understand a concept. On the other hand, definitions prepare the ground for collective agreement on a concept among the experts in a field of study and, thus, help us overcome the limits of cultural relativity. Therefore, exploring the definitions provided for religion and architecture would facilitate the feasibility of studying the relationship between these two concepts and, as a result, discussing Islamic architecture. Relaying on a rational definition of religion according to Islamic wisdom, the present study addresses the literal/lexical definitions of architecture. Religion is defined as a coherent system of beliefs, morals and practical principles that shape an individual’ s lifestyle. Based on this definition, we explore and compare the literal definitions of “ architect” and “ architecture” in both English and Persian lexicons: An “ architect” lives a life of serving other people’ s lives and “ architecture” is a theoretical-practical process whose product is livable structures for human beings. These two are not only connected to religion but they are also religious in nature.

One of the major challenges in the field of architecture is the reading and critiquing individual works regardless of relevant textual layers that may affect the formation of the work. The main concern of the present research is the great importance of criticism to the architectural community. Unfortunately however, the lack of systematic readings of architectural works has led to the absence of reliable criticisms that may help improve the quality of the works. As one of the most widely used concepts in contemporary literary criticism, intertextuality refers to the idea that a text is interconnected with earlier and later texts; therefore, every text should be read and appreciated in relation to other texts. As a concept, intertextuality is not exclusive to literary arts. It is also relevant to other artistic subjects including cinema, painting, music, architecture, photography and, in general, all forms of cultural or artistic production. Intertextuality has grown out of the field of literary criticism and has been put to use in reading and critiquing other artistic texts as well. In this study, we intend to read architectural works through an application of the theory of intertextuality to the field of architectural criticism. By relying on an intertextual reading, this study addresses the relations between peritext and intertext elements and their impact on the formation of the overall meaning of architectural works. We have formulated the Intertextuality Reading Model for the in intertextual reading of architecture based on the theory of intertextuality and have evaluated the model by applying it to our reading of Al-Qadir Mosque as a case study. The question that we, herein, seek to answer is: How do we read architectural works based on the Intertextuality Reading Model? This study uses a qualitative design. Data collection was conducted via descriptive procedures and content analysis was carried out via discursive procedures, i. e., logical arguments. The study focuses on the theory of intertextuality and addresses the different layers of the text, i. e., the architecture work, in light of syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes, diachronic and synchronic approaches, codification and implications. Our findings indicate that the use of an intertextual method prevents superficial readings of architectural works, facilitates the understanding of hidden layers of meaning and activates broader paradigms of interpretation. The different semantic aspects of an architectural work in intertextual relations can be uncovered by a plurality of different layers at the vertical (“ diachronic” ) axis of its semiotic system and the horizontal (“ synchronic” ) axis of its codification system.

Understanding the invaluable history of Iranian architecture and utilizing its sustainable bases, principles and patterns can help us improve architecture both in the present and in the future. To understand Iranian architecture, it is essential that we can read it thoroughly and correctly; but before that, we need to have a comprehensive definition of it. So, the main question of this research is: How should we read Iranian architecture? And that question gives rise to two more questions: What is Iranian architecture? And why should we read it? To answer these questions, we first surveyed experts (in two groups: researchers and designers) for their viewpoints on Iranian architecture. The collected data were analyzed, categorized and codified in three groups: the definition, the necessity and the method of reading architecture. The findings are presented below as based on the three research questions: 1. What is Iranian architecture? The resulting data were coded into five categories: architect, goal, material, form and context. In this step, based on the codes, we adapted Aristotle’ s theory of the “ four causes of being” to develop a conceptual model of architecture including its four causes (material, formal, efficient and final) and its different types of contexts (natural, social and formal/physical). This model is aimed at finding an answer to the question “ What is Iranian architecture? ” and serves as a framework for the other two questions. 2. Why should we read the history of Iranian architecture? The collected data about the necessity of reading architecture were coded into three categories: extracting the principles, exploring the patterns and utilizing those principles and patterns in contemporary architecture. 3. How should we read Iranian architecture? By answering the previous two questions, we have approached the answer to the third question. Identifying the goals of reading and the relevant factors will guide us in reading architecture. To reach a practical method for reading architecture, we have drawn on our experiences in teaching university courses in architectural history as well as student activities. We will propose a five-stage reading process (description, analysis, criticism, instruction and practice) and three stages of reading (before, during and after visiting a building). Finally, we will present a checklist of the necessary activities for reading Iranian architecture and lay out the results of using the proposed reading method in five areas of architecture including education, research, production, media and policy-making.