JOURNAL OF IRANIAN ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES
Year:2025 | Volume:14 | Issue:27|Papers Count:12

The lifeworld of Khurāsānīs in the early Islamic centuries was deeply dependent on water at every level and in every aspect of life. Just as rivers and streams had physical and material sources—emerging from one place, flowing through another, spreading across the land, and bringing about prosperity—they also had mental and spiritual sources, slopes, basins, and destinations. What gave coherence and integrity to this world was the interweaving of these material and immaterial dimensions. Some aspects of this lifeworld are revealed in texts composed by the Khurāsānīs of that time. The central question of this study is: Based on what these texts reveal, what role did water play—as a material, mental, and cultural actor—in the world of Khurāsānīs during the early Islamic centuries? Drawing on Actor–Network Theory and concepts from cultural environmental history and human–environmental studies, this article explores the role of water in this historical lifeworld. Rather than viewing water as merely a natural element, we approach it as a material, spatial, and cultural actor that contributed to the organization of collective life, spatial order, power relations, and human mentalities. Through close readings of Persian prose and verse texts from early Islamic Khurāsān, we examine the complex network of interactions between water and other human and nonhuman actors. In this network, water operates as a mediator of meaning-making, social order, and lived experience—simultaneously present in the visible and invisible realms—and plays a structuring, mediating, and multidimensional role.

Located on the southern margin of the Dasht-e Kavir desert, the historical city of Jandaq has long served as a significant settlement. During the Qajar period, Jandaq Fortress encompassed approximately one hundred houses of varying sizes, housing the entire population within its walls. The historical fabric of the fortress is characterized by a dense and interconnected ensemble of affluent residences, the Jāmeh Mosque, a public bathhouse, covered passageways (Sābāts), and a labyrinthine network of alleys. The architecture of the fortress and its houses vividly reflects efforts to ensure comfort, security, and resilience against the harsh desert climate and potential external threats. Jandagh Fortress remains inhabited today, with 23 local households residing. Several of the historic houses have been repurposed as ecolodges, while others stand abandoned or partially ruined. This article presents architectural documentation, describes the components and their functions, and analyzes the spatial relationships among prominent houses within the Jandagh Fortress, including the residences of the Yaghmā, Safāyi, Heshmat, Kāfi, Bitaraf, and Mirzā Abdolkarim. Additionally, the article provides an analysis of key architectural elements, including entranceways and bahārband, eywāns, bādgirs, winter quarters, and kitchens (matbax). Through a critical examination of historical records and written sources, and a comparative analysis with similar structures in Yazd and Meybod—regions sharing geographic and socio-political characteristics with Jandaq—this research offers more profound insights into the architectural legacy of the fortress. Based on the surviving architectural evidence and comparative studies, the tradition of settlement within Jandaq Fortress can be traced back to the 8th century AH (14th century CE), during the Muzaffarid dynasty. However, various additions, alterations, functional changes, and periods of abandonment have shaped its present form.

Twenty years after Naser al-Din Shah's ascension to the throne, the rampart built during the Safavid period of Shah Tahmasb was demolished, and a new wall was constructed to expand, modernize, and transform Tehran into the “Dar al-Khilafa-yi Nasirī”, befitting the modern era. With the construction of Tehran's new wall, the city gained a new boundary and threshold, leading to unprecedented urban development. The city expanded in all four directions, and new quarters joined to its north, south, east, and west. Except for Mahalla-yi Dowlat in the north, these newly developed areas were named as tābi‘-i mahalla, subordinate extensions to older neighborhoods, creating liminal urban spaces. While Tehran's development during Naser al-Din Shah's reign has been studied, the lens of liminality and its spatial consequences remains unexplored. Using first-hand written and visual sources and a historical strategy, this study aims to demonstrate that these Tābi‘-i mahalla were indeed liminal developments. The Absence of a vision of the city's overall development and planning, unequal environmental conditions across the city's geographical expanse, modernization trends, social divisions, and the competing demands of the government and various social groups shaped distinct spatial qualities. Consequently, a new, heterogeneous urban landscape emerged at this threshold.  The characteristic of this landscape, which had a heterogeneous texture and structure, was a relative spatial order in the north and northwest, featuring gardens, wide, European-style streets, dual living spaces, free from the norms of traditional society, and havens for free thought, out of the observer's eye. In contrast, the southern and southeastern landscape was characterized by a scattered, irregular, and resource-poor environment where the impoverished sought community and urban security. In this way, in a state of liminality, areas emerged that neither resembled the old city nor were similar to one another, yet they constructed the geographies of the north and south.

In recent years, the decline in the vitality of the collective spaces of residential complexes, especially in major Iranian cities such as Tehran, has raised significant concern among urban designers and policymakers. Key factors contributing to this issue include weak physical design, a lack of supportive environments for social interaction, and the neglect of behavioral and semantic dimensions, all of which diminish urban livability. This study aims to analyze and structurally model the relationships between physical, behavioral-movement, and perceptual-semantic components and the level of vitality in the collective spaces of mid-rise residential complexes in District 22 of Tehran. Using a mixed-methods approach in a sequential exploratory design, the research first employed content analysis and interviews in the qualitative phase, followed by a structured questionnaire in the quantitative phase. In this model, physical variables (including form, function, concept, technology, and integration) are treated as independent variables,behavioral-movement variables (desirability, comfort, presence, and territoriality) as mediators,and perceptual-semantic variables (dynamism, attachment, satisfaction, responsiveness, and tranquility) as dependent variables. Data collection utilized a structured questionnaire, with responses collected from 255 residents of selected mid-rise complexes via random sampling. Sampling adequacy was confirmed using the KMO test, and the questionnaire's reliability and validity were verified using Cronbach’s alpha and model fit indices. Data were analyzed using path modeling and structural equation modeling in SPSS and AMOS. The analysis revealed three significant relationships with strong effect sizes: (1) physical values, mediated by behavioral-movement variables, contributing to revitalizing residents’ vitality,(2) behavioral values, also shaped by movement-related factors, playing a significant role in enhancing vitality,and (3) perceptual-semantic values, as dependent indicators of vitality, directly influenced by physical components. Among physical variables, "form" had the most significant impact as an independent factor,among behavioral-movement variables, the domain of physical values demonstrated the strongest mediating role,and among the vitality indicators, "dynamism" was the most influential dependent variable.

Nadushan, located 105 km from Yazd, has a long and rich history. It once lay along the Silk Road at a key crossroads for caravans. However, due to its distance from modern routes, its prosperity has declined. During the Safavid period, Nadushan’s role as a communication hub between Yazd and Isfahan was significantly enhanced. This prominence is evident in the village's growth and development, including the construction of fortifications and the increase in residential buildings. Despite the diversity of Safavid-era houses in Nadushan, there has been no focused research on their typology. This article aims to address that gap. The study is based on historical documents and fieldwork and employs a descriptive-analytical method. It aims to classify Safavid houses in Nadushan by analyzing shared spatial characteristics and comparing their formal features. The analysis combines qualitative and quantitative aspects to arrive at a final typology. The findings reveal that two main types of houses were prevalent during the Safavid period: the 4-soffeh house and the courtyard house. The 4-soffeh houses continued the traditional Iranian residential pattern. The most common Safavid houses in Nadushan are one-sided houses with a three-part layout, followed by larger lordly houses with a five-part plan.

One of the Qajar-era woodworker-artists from the Kashan region, about whom little is known, is Safar Ali Bidgoli. This article introduces eight of his woodworking pieces, some of which had not been previously identified. These works include three double-leaf wooden doors from the shrines of Shahzadeh Mohammad in Nushabad, the Jameh Mosque of Abyaneh, and Bibi Shah Zeynab in Yazdel,four pulpits located in the Chahar-Suq Hosseiniyeh of Aran, Tuydeh Hosseiniyeh in Nushabad, the Jameh Mosque of Abyaneh, and the Khanqah Hosseiniyeh in Bidgol,and one royal Qur’an stand (rahl). These works were created over fifty years, from 1267 to 1317 AH (circa 1850–1900 AD). This study aims to identify Safar Ali's works and to provide a preliminary understanding of his life. Therefore, the central questions pursued are: Who was Safar Ali? What works of his have survived? Moreover, what artistic and thematic features do these works possess? The research data were primarily collected through fieldwork and subsequently described and analyzed using historical sources. Safar Ali is an artist responsible for the most extensive body of woodwork from the late Qajar period, including some of the last distinguished religious woodcarvings in the Kashan region. The style of most of his works—an innovative continuation of his contemporaries' approach—involved woodcarving geometric patterns centered on sunburst motifs, interspersed with floral spike designs. His pieces are artistically significant and, in terms of content, include the names of the artist and donors, dates, and religious concepts—especially Shia beliefs—expressed through Arabic inscriptions and Persian poetry. A carved door panel in the Jameh Mosque of Nushabad also remains as a testament to Mahmoud, the son of Safar Ali, who collaborated with his father on some woodworking projects.

The sense of thermal comfort in educational environments is a key factor affecting both learning quality and student productivity. Inappropriate temperature and lighting conditions can cause thermal discomfort, decrease concentration, lead to early fatigue, and impede learning progress. Therefore, creating a space with optimal thermal comfort not only supports students' well-being but also plays a crucial role in designing effective educational facilities. This study aims to explore how different levels of ambient temperature (20, 25, and 30 degrees Celsius), light intensity (200, 400, and 600 lux), and the associated color temperature of ambient light (2700, 4000, and 7800 Kelvin) influence students' perceptions of thermal comfort while studying in a laboratory climate chamber. Conducted over four months (December to March 2024) with 90 male students from Ilam city, the research employed a three-way ANOVA analysis using SPSS version 27. Results indicated that correlated light color temperatures of 2700 Kelvin (at 25 degrees Celsius and light intensities of 200, 400, and 600 lux), 4000 Kelvin (at 600 lux), and 7800 Kelvin (at 20 degrees Celsius) significantly affected students' feelings of thermal comfort (p<0. 05). The ambient temperature of the study hall and the correlated color temperature of ambient light, both independently and in combination with light intensity, significantly influenced students' thermal comfort. Although ambient light intensity alone did not have a significant effect, it did interact with ambient temperature. The findings also confirmed that both ambient temperature and correlated color temperature significantly affected students' thermal comfort in the library, with effects varying across the ambient light intensities (200, 400, and 600 lux). Specifically, at 200 lux, the 4000 K group revealed differences from the other groups. At 400 lux, a combined effect was observed, with the highest comfort reported at 2700 K. At 600 lux, only the group with the highest color temperature (7800 K) experienced greater thermal comfort than the others. In conclusion, the influence of light color temperature on thermal comfort depends on ambient light intensity and temperature conditions, with different levels producing distinct effects under each scenario.

The royal monuments of the Achaemenid Empire exemplify the deployment of advanced architectural technology in the ancient world. However, scholarly attention to the construction techniques of these structures has remained comparatively limited. This interdisciplinary study focuses on the roof-covering system of the Apadana Palace, critically examining the prevailing reconstructions that derive from the early twentieth-century hypotheses of the German architect Friedrich Krefter. To assess the validity of the dominant interpretation, the research adopts a mixed-methods approach within a historical framework, combining descriptive–analytical procedures with logical reasoning. The enquiry begins with a review of the literature, tracing two centuries of debate and theorization concerning the roofing systems of Achaemenid palaces. It proceeds by situating the Apadana within the broader evolution of columned halls in the ancient world, identifying both convergences and divergences between Achaemenid architecture and that of other civilisations. Structural, constructional, and archaeological evidence is then brought to bear in exposing the shortcomings of the dominant reconstruction model. Drawing on architectural analysis, ancient engineering principles, and field data, the study seeks to identify the technique employed by the Achaemenid master builder. Findings reveal that column capitals, beyond their decorative role, fulfilled a structural function: principal beams were seated within carved sockets in the capitals, representing one of humanity’s earliest attempts to restrict the free rotation of beam ends and to create optimised joints for stress transfer. Furthermore, by seating timber within the secure recess of stone and employing specialised joinery that does not compromise the integrity of the wood, the architect achieved a structural integration of the beams. In this arrangement, the principal beams linked the columns in continuous bands, while transverse beams completed the roof framework, contributing to the building’s seismic resilience. The results offer a new understanding of Achaemenid construction technology, revealing the ingenuity of the Persian architect in the realisation and execution of the most expansive, flat-roofed halls of the ancient world.

The essence and core of existence—whether in the noble Endeavor of engineering the spiritual structure of being, or in the rational, scientific, and practical operations of life—has always been, and will remain, founded upon geometry (hendeseh) and measure (qadr). To assert otherwise would be unfounded. In Islamic wisdom, Allah is understood as the Absolute Knowledge, Wisdom, Living Intellect, and Will rooted in truth. He is the unifier of sciences and technologies within a higher order of Unity, the ultimate Divine Engineer (al-Muqaddir). In this sense, Geometry and Measure are not external categories but the very manifestation of Allah Himself—the Absolute Geometry, the Absolute Measure. A narration from Imam al-Ridā (peace be upon him) confirms this perspective: the first and fundamental creation of God was al-Taqdīr—the primordial act of determination and measurement. This act provided the very foundation for continuous divine engineering: the ever-renewed production of ordered geometries, the emergence of value-based composite realities, and the ceaseless renewal of creation itself. The Imam further taught that the first knowledge imparted to humanity was the “Knowledge of the Book. ” This does not refer simply to scripture but to the science of composition: the knowledge of how rational and scientific fundamental truths are combined, synthesized, and structured into divine and alive meanings and meaningful forms. It is the foundation of all forms of order and the root of the infinite "books" of existence—composite realities governed by divine rational principles. This insight resonates with the divine declaration of God's own words: “The Rahmān (All-Merciful) [That is Allah, who is the Absolute Knowledge, Wisdom, Living Intellect, and the unifier of divine powers, technologies, and sciences taught humanity the knowledge of creativity, the knowledge of composing both scriptural and ontological “words”]. Here, Qur’ān must be understood not merely as a text, but as the knowledge of creativity itself—the synthesis of meanings into harmonious, composite forms of valuable beauties, perfection, and truth, and the creation of dynamic living words. The Rahmān is described as womb-like, whose general, comprehensive, and prominent actin is all-mercifulness: Alive and intelligent, embryo-like and being provided by the womb, forever in bloom, growth. This metaphor emphasizes that his essential function is rahmāniyya: the nurturing, creating, sustaining, and perfecting of His creatures. Just as an embryo flourishes within the womb, so too the human being—embryo-like in intellect and essence—is inseparable from the mercy of the Rahman. In this framework, humanity is created as a divine exemplar: a God-like being endowed with the creative faculty of speech, capable of generating living words as dynamic vessels of meaning. This human creative power mirrors the divine act of word-creation, the articulation of truth in resonant, meaningful, and life-giving forms. To equip humanity for this role, God imparted the knowledge of bayan—the knowledge of His Supreme Name, an essential awareness of His essence, and a detailed understanding of His life-attributes. Through this, the human being becomes truly human, attaining humanity as a dual existence—spiritual and material, heavenly and earthly. In sustaining his humanity through dynamic activity and intellect, man is capable of knowing all things.

Environmental crises have driven societies and governments towards finding solutions and strategies to reduce carbon emissions. One fundamental approach to addressing this issue is to reduce the share of pollutant production in the building sector. Despite efforts by some countries, Iran appears to have a long and challenging path ahead to institutionalize low-carbon mechanisms across sectors, including the construction industry. This article aims to explore these challenges. The method employed in this research is a citation-based approach that draws on findings from multiple sources to address the technical challenges of low-carbon buildings in Iran. Previous research has shown that the main barriers to constructing low-carbon buildings in countries are technical, economic, informational, political, and socio-cultural barriers. Given greater connections with building industry stakeholders, this research focuses on technical barriers, with related obstacles noted for each. Based on the research findings, the technical barriers to constructing low-carbon buildings in Iran include the lack of regulations, challenges related to materials, material labeling, renewable energy, energy efficiency, and indoor environmental quality. Among these, the factor of renewable energy poses the most significant technical challenge, while policy-related and informational limitations are among the contributing factors to the present technical challenges in Iran.

Bāghshāh Gate, as one of the prominent symbolic elements within the historical urban fabric of Shiraz, has been referenced in numerous textual and visual historical sources. However, due to the physical destruction of the structure, the lack of tangible field evidence, and ambiguities in the historical records, its precise location remains uncertain. This research aims to identify and reinterpret the spatial position of this gate within the historical and contemporary urban context of Shiraz, thereby reconstructing a lost component of the city's spatial memory. The study employs a qualitative methodology, integrating interdisciplinary approaches such as documentary analysis, historical semiotics, intertextual reading, and spatial correlation. Data were collected from diverse sources, including travelogues, historical maps, archival photographs, and descriptive texts. Through comparative and content-based analysis of these sources, organized around shared temporal axes and overlapping spatial themes, the study seeks to discern recurring patterns, semantic discontinuities, and zones of interpretative ambiguity to arrive at an evidence-based localization of the gate. Findings reveal that Dehnādi Street lay outside the historic city walls, and the approximate position of Bāghshāh Gate was located between Dehnādi Street and the Municipality Square. Moreover, the georeferenced analysis of the 1923 map (1302 AH Solar Hijri) revealed inconsistencies between the gate's mapped location and its placement as inferred from visual documentation. This discrepancy underscores the greater reliability of archival imagery over the hand-drawn, low-precision cartography of that era. Based on these comparative analyses, a revised version of the 1923 map has been produced, offering a more accurate, evidence-based representation of the gate's surroundings. By recovering the spatial identity of a lost architectural element in Shiraz's historical landscape, this research not only reinforces the city’s historical memory but also provides a documented foundation for future studies on regeneration in historic urban areas and the reinterpretation of Shiraz's spatial organization. It further offers insights for informed policymaking in urban heritage conservation.

Place identity, rooted in environmental psychology and urban sociology, refers to the symbiotic relationship between individuals and their physical surroundings, where spaces become integral to self-definition and collective memory. Grounded in Proshansky’s theory, it encompasses distinctiveness (unique spatial attributes), continuity (temporal attachment), self-esteem (pride in place), and self-efficacy (control over environment). This multidimensional construct evolves through lived experiences, social interactions, and cultural narratives, transforming anonymous spaces into meaningful “places. ”Place identity integrates four core dimensions: cognitive (mental understanding of a space), affective (emotional bonds, such as safety), behavioral (active engagement through routines or community participation), and evaluative (judgments of a place’s functionality or cultural value). Together, these dimensions shape how individuals perceive, interact with, and derive meaning from their environments, forming a cohesive sense of belonging and identity. Despite its theoretical richness, empirical studies often overlook how housing typologies—especially gated versus non-gated communities—modulate these dimensions, particularly in cities experiencing rapid urbanization and spatial fragmentation. This study examines Qasemabad, Mashhad, a district emblematic of favoring gated communities. By considering linearly configured gated communities (characterized by walls, restricted access, and privatized amenities) alongside non-gated, open-block housing, the research interrogates how physical boundaries shape residents’ cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and evaluative aspects of place identity. A quantitative approach surveyed 240 residents using a 29-item Likert-scale questionnaire validated through pilot testing (Cronbach’s α = 0. 84). The statistical analyses (independent t-tests, Tukey’s HSD) confirmed significant inter-typology differences: Non-gated residential environments demonstrated more favorable conditions across all four dimensions of place identity. The results of the independent t-test indicate that the highest mean in gated housing is associated with the emotional dimension. In contrast, in non-gated housing, it is associated with the cognitive dimension. Additionally, in both types of housing, the lowest mean is associated with the behavioral dimension. Notably, the findings challenge the presumed superiority of gated communities in fostering place identity, revealing their role in fragmenting socio-spatial cohesion. Policy implications urge urban planners to integrate porous design—such as semi-permeable boundaries, shared green spaces, and pedestrian-friendly layouts—to reconcile security with connectivity.