Mahabad or formerly Savojbolagh Mukri is one of the most important cities in northwestern Iran in the southern basin of Lake Urmia It was founded by Budaq Sultan, one of the Mukri rulers, during the reign of Shah Suleiman the Safavid and for four centuries was the center of Mukrian province. In the past decades, several copper coins have been found in the city of Mahabad by the local people, which according to the inscription have been minted in this city. In the present article, an attempt is made to investigate the reasons and grounds for minting coins in this city and to show their belonging to the Savojbolagh Mint. It is assumed that the location of Savojbolagh in the communication route between Baghdad and Tabriz has led to the development of the market and its commercial centers and has necessitated the establishment of a multiplication center there. Also, the discovery and identification of copper coins in the city of Mahabad and the surrounding areas indicate that they were minted at the Dar al-Zarb in Savojbolagh. Leading research has been completed by library and field methods and by descriptive and analytical methods. The result of this research confirms that in comparing the multiplied shapes on these coins and other samples, they can be attributed to the reign of the Mukri rulers until the middle of the Qajar period and the reign of Sheikh Ali Khan, Budaq Khan, and Abdullah Khan. The existence of a mint in this city also indicates its political, military, and economic importance in the past centuries.

Silver coins of Alexander of Macedonia, until the arrival of Parthians in the 1st century BC, have been put in WDXRF in order to determin Ag, Cu, Pb and Au as major and trace elements for fineness, debasement and refinement of silver in ancient Persia.Seleucid kingdom from 4th to 1st century BC was succeeded by several dynasties and kings. But the chemical composition of their silver coins and their fineness shows there was no changes in technology and economic policy.

The most important foundations of the coinage system and exchanges in the Ilkhanate era were metal coins including gold, silver and copper. In the short run, paper money or Banknotes also became popular. So, the system was Multi-metal. Until the Ghazan reforms, it did not follow a centralized policy. Each of the countries under the jurisdiction of the Ilkhanate had a special weight and carat. Generally, its most important feature in many times was coin fraud and weight loss. The economy of this era was based on money, and barter system of exchange did not have much place. The present article tries to recognize the status of the system of coinage and exchanges in the Ilkhanate era, its most important features, its efficiency and ineffectiveness based on its effective factors.

The utilizing of script elements with textual inscriptions on artifacts, particularly coins, has played a pivotal role in shaping diverse lines and an array of writing styles and letter forms throughout history. This study, grounded in descriptive and exploratory methodologies, seeks to meticulously analyze and scrutinize the visual attributes of coin inscriptions from the Ilkhanid period, which are housed in the prestigious Malek Museum. These artifacts, carefully selected from a vast repository of over 400 specimens, stand out due to their distinctive line features, captivating the attention of scholars and enthusiasts alike with their visual allure and historical significance. Central to the examination of these coins is the prevalent use of Arabic/Persian in Kufic script, often accompanied by phrases in the Mongolian language, occasionally influenced by the Naskh script. Thus, the primary objective of this research is to identify and elucidate various script styles and the unique characteristics of different Kufic lines employed on coins during the Ilkhanid period. Through meticulous analysis, this study uncovers a remarkable diversity among samples of Kufic lines, each exhibiting its own nuances and artistic expressions. Despite sharing commonalities, these lines showcase significant flexibility, offering a rich tapestry for artistic exploration and innovation in letter design. The unique breadth and variety of lines used on the coins of this era is such that each of them visually has significant similarities and differences with each other. The differences are clearly visible both in detail and in general outline. The lines are intermingled with all kinds of geometrical, plants, leaves, flowers and Arabesque motifs, and also some letters end in a decorative shape. Many decorative tendencies that can be seen in the types of kufic scripts have given them a distinctive style. Beyond the immediate scope of this research, its broader aim is to contribute to the enrichment and diversification of contemporary letters and writing practices. By shedding light on the intricate details and historical context of coin inscriptions from the Ilkhanid period, this study lays a foundation for further investigations into the evolution of script and calligraphic traditions. Moreover, it underscores the significance of artifacts housed in institutions like the Malek Museum as invaluable resources for understanding and preserving cultural heritage. In conclusion, this research serves as a testament to the enduring legacy of script elements on artifacts, particularly coins, and their role in shaping diverse writing styles and letter forms. Through meticulous analysis and exploration, it not only enriches our understanding of historical artifacts but also provides a platform for the exploration of innovative perspectives in letter design. Therefore, taking advantage of the diversity of writing and investigating the unlimited visual capabilities of these lines and focusing on their structural features; can help us to achieve different tones in contemporary writing. Ultimately, it is hoped that this study will inspire further inquiry and appreciation for the richness and diversity of script traditions across different cultures and epochs.

The Coinage system in the Timurid dynasty as in other governmental dynasties provides valuable information about the political power and the influence of governors. Relatively, it indicates religious orientations, economic and political situations, especially in the field of commerce. The present writing analyzes the coinage system and money exchanges in the Timurid dynasty by using a historical method based on an analytic-descriptive approach and using historical resources and the coins available in museums and gathered works. It also tries to answer the following questions: what are the characteristics of different current coins in the Timurid dynasty in terms of weight, cutting and frequency of currencies and variety of mints? Given the analysis and comparison of the mentioned information, what are the changes in money value and what are their influences on the economic situation in this dynasty? The research results indicate that the coinage system and money exchanges in the Timurid dynasty (771-913 A. H. ) as in previous dynasties were based on gold, silver and copper coins without any adherence to the concentrated system. Therefore the endeavors which were done in the case of coinage with the same weight indicate an attempt to reach economic stability, development and growth of regional and interregional commerce which were seriously followed by some Timurid Amirs including Timur. The attention and interest of the Timurid dynasty in commerce and establishment of relations with other territories and also internal stability are the most important reasons for their attempts to standardize the coins all around the conquered territories. Although it wasn’ t completely successful, widespread policies based on this fundamental economic principle is worthy of attention and contemplation.

The bronze coins of Antiochus III that are dated to the time of his great expedition to the East come from a mint in Ecbatana. The obverse depicts the diademed head of the king, whereas the reverse shows a grazing horse or a mare with a foal. Both motifs were absent from Seleucid coinage, but direct analogies can be found in Achaemenid seals. By placing these motifs on his coins, Antiochus III was likely attempting to portray himself as the rightful king of Iran.

In the time period between the death of Sultan Abu Saeed and Timur empire in eastern Iran, the competitors were in conflict with each other. They include the princes remained from Genghis Khan Dynasty, governors of local dynasties and affiliated groups of religious movements. In meantime, Tugha Timur governed in western Khorasan and Gorgan,Herat`s Kartids gained governance in northern Khorasan by increasing the influence on Sistan and Kerman,and Sarbedaran also governed in western Khorasan. The social and political changes in this period led to the invasion of Timur to eastern Iran. Coinage system and monetary exchanges are considered as bureaucracy indicators in Timur period and before it. This system is a regular and common set of material, monetary units, titles motifs, geometric shapes, phrases and inscriptions used in the coins. The coinage system in the mentioned time period were based on metal coins of Ilkhanids period, but the phrases and texts of some coins made some changes in its structure and properties due to political relations between rulers and religious, economic and social conditions of the governments. In order to study the changes or continuity of coinage in this time period, it is necessary to know the process of continuity and change in calligraphy, language, motifs, weight, carat, phrases and slogans used on the coins of decline time of Ilkhanids by looking the Ilkhanids coins and then it is also necessary to compare and study changes in monetary units, language, motifs and other characteristics of coinage system after the defeat of local governments and establishment of Timurids government. We assume that in decline time of both Ilkhanids and Timurids dynasties, coinage of metal coins with different weights were continued and religious and political legitimacy of rulers played kings played an important r in coinage system, while the religious attitude of societies were also considered and it is evident in different styles of coinage. Research Background: In case of introduction and description of the coins in terms of weight, material, titles of kings, phrases, inscription and motifs, abundant data are shared. Also, some thematic studies in format of articles have compared and analyzed them. These articles include: "the study of religious policies of Sarbedaran (738-783A. H. )","numismatics in the time of Shah Sultan Husayn Bayqara in the historical territory of Great Khorasan (by emphasis on religious approach)",coinage system and monetary exchanges in Timurids period in eastern territory of Iran". These articles also discuss in brief the historical course of governments. The thesis "change of motifs and religious rals of Iranian coins from Ilkhanids to Safavids periods about the roles of coins and religious approach" is considered as a model for how to perform a research, but in the mentioned researches, the issue of continuity and changes done in the coins in decline period of Ilkhanids and Timurids periods (in the eastern territory of Iran) is not death with comparatively and comprehensively. The present research is based on a historical method, a analytic-descriptive approach and information of historical written books, pictures of the coins in catalogues and the works which deal with gathering the pictures of coins and also the coins maintained in museums. Therefore, the present writing at first tries to study the necessary data from the historiographical works and historical resources and coins and then to study the issue of continuity and changes resulting from coinage system and conditions of coins in this period. Research Findings: coinage system of local governments of Timur and Sarbedaran were continued in eastern territory of Iran based on gold, silver and copper. In case of calligraphy, motifs, tles, some religious rituals and using the names of four Ilkhanids caliphs were inserted like Sunni decoration except Ali Moayyed period in which most of writings, inscriptions and phrases of coins such as Oljaito coins were coined with Shiite decoration. Using the names of 12 Imams and religious verses are considered as important characteristics of the coins in Ali Moayyed period. In coin system of Timurids, monetary units such as Dinar, Toman, Derham and Miri were continued as Ilkhanids period but monetary units such as Shahrokhi were common with different criteria. In case of using Turkish language with Persian and Arabic languages, some pictures and phrases were changed on the coins.

Notable in the assemblage of small finds from Valiran are seven coins recovered in the Parthian cemetery and eight others coming from the Sasanian structure at the site. Since the Parthian and Sasanian coins bear assorted inscriptions and representations, their examination may furnish indispensable information on royal names and their portraits, the minting places, titles and honorifics, religion, and generally lead to a purified chronology. The present work represents a qualitative study relying on field excavations and library research and also benefits from the knowledge of ancient languages in order to find answers to such questions as: In the reigns of which Parthian and Sasanian kings did the Parthian cemetery and the Sasanian fort were in use, and for how long? And, what are the characteristics and stylistic attributions of the discovered coinage? The results of the numismatic analysis show that the Parthians used the Veliran cemetery to bury their dead for about a century, spanning the reigns of Mithridates II and Orodes I, and after a hiatus of some 500 years, the Sasanians settled the site in the times of Khosrow I by constructing there a fort.

One of the urgent needs of Persian language is to translate and oppose thousands of emerging technical foreign terms, entering and invading it through confronting with various branches of science and technology. It is obvious that satisfying such a need requires the translators’ knowledge and practice. In addition to coining new words, on the other hand, it is necessary for them to study the words already coined by the others so that, finding their strengths or weaknesses, inappropriate words can be abandoned. The present article follows this objective. Having introduced general theories of word coinage, it criticizes the translations of forty foreign words and finally offers alternatives for the majority of them. The revised words have been translated by the Academy of Persian Language and Literature, and the Foundation of Culture (in the time of Pahlavi regime, with the same function as the Academy of Persian Language and Literature has today).