JOURNAL OF RURAL RESEARCH
Year:2010 | Volume:1 | Issue:3|Papers Count:7

Introduction: Rural areas are affected by globalization and one of the globalization commitments. WTO accession creates both benefits and expenditures for countries especially rural societes in new member, but preponderance of created benefits and expenditures depends on country bargaining power in negotiation process and agreement acceptation. As there is not independent and separate agreement for rural areas in the WTO literature, on the other hand. Agreements of Agricultural (AoA) are the relevant issues for rural societies. Therefore, treatment with rural society is usually done through AoA. AoA is provided in there domains: “Market access”, “export subsidies” and “domestic support” Among these domains, domestic support is the most important issue to support porgrammes of rural development. Domestic support has three boxes that define by their colors Green box (permitted), amber box (slow down, i.e. be reduced) and blue box (for subsidies that are tied to programmes that limit the production). Green box supports, provided that no distort trade, or at most cause minimal distortion, is exempted from reduction commitments, and members can properly use this tool to support rural & agricultural development and environment maintemance. So, the purpose of this paper is to identify and analysis of green box measures in WTO members and present guidelines for rural decision makers in Iran. So research questions are as follows: How can a member support from rural area after WTO accession; and what is experiments of membersMethodology: Methodology of this study is content analysis, Data were obtained from the WTO Web: Documents of 38 WTO members, including old and new members that had green box, have3 been reviewed and finally 17 members were selected for final analysis and study, Among 17 members, documents of United States and Europe Union i.e. the largest users of green box, has been completely studied, and regarding the other 15 countries (Australia, China, Georgia, Palestin. Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Poland, South Africa, Thailand, Venezuela, Armenia, Estonia, Jordan and Panama), those items were selected that include the world “Rural” Results & Discussion: Results show that the developed countries, such as US, EU and Australia, have defined diverse and various items and paragraphs to support from agriculture sector and consequently rural area, while developing countries have not diversified the items. For example, US has defined more than 65 items (with its details) to support from agriculture sector as well as in some cases their law and legislative fields is provided, such as Act of 2000, 2001 and 2005. Also, results show that according to “the ratio of support amount in green box to agriculture GDP (%) ”, Estonia (49.32), US (48.34%) and Japan (24.24%) are three top countries, and Malaysia (1.31%), Armenia (1.45%) and Georgia (3.32%) are the three lower ones, Results also shouled that the important support measures are Irrigation projects and rural water aids. Payments for small and medium businesses, support of rural cooperatives, payments for rural industries, and payments for natural disastes (droughts, floods and storms) base on temporal and location conditions.Conclusion: This study shows that the green box support tools is different from input subsides and price supports, and also shows that the larger user of green box has defined diverse and various tools to support from agriculture sector. As most of the support tools provided for agricultural sector in Iran are in the form of input subsidies and guaranteed prices and they are not exempt from reduction commitment in WTO literature, we suggest, for effective bargaining in WTO negotation process and better supporting from rural area, current kinds of supports be changed to green box items, and their law & legislative requirements should previously be provid. These kinds of supports (green box items) can include: vulnerability and food insecurity payments. Agricultula and rural people insurances, natural disaster payments, payments for rural cooperative development. Payments for rural water and irrigation projects, research services aids. Rural newborn industry aids, payments for self-employment in rural areas. Among these items, as respects to more than 75% of the world naural disaster are occurred in Iran and rural areas are more exposed to natural disasters, government should effectively define budget items to compensate losses and strengthen infrastructure against disasters. These items should preferably define for different regionals base on their characteristics. As Australia has defined. Finally, It is crucial to rural and agricultural policymakers to separate rural shares from common payments because rural credits are not transparent in annual budgeting in Iran, for example in some cases payments for agriculture are paid for supporting from other area such as urban consumers, or in some cases, annual budgeting surveys show that it has been apparently paid for agriculture sector while researches really show that support from agricultural sector is negative. So we suggest rural development stakeholders and policymakers should consider these kinds of payments should not lie agricultural domestic support box, as a whole.

Introduction: Tourism as a 21st century phenomenon is among the major sources of economic incentives which plays an important role in cultural, social, and economic development of human beings. Rural tourism is a new orientation in tourist industry because of relatives that advantage it offers. Moreover, it provides income and employment opportunities to rural villagers. Rural tourism brings out a need for rural economy and development. Rural tourism industry can be used as a strategy in overcoming current challenges inherent in rural economy. Furthermore, there are increasing challenges facing rural stability such as poverty, unemployment, lack of sanitation, lack of food security, migration, marginalization, environmental degradation, ect. This dilemma has made rural development practitioners to search for strategies that can overcome these challenges in rural areas.Methodology: The purpose of this qualitative study has been to shed light on problems and challenges inherent in Harir village, using grounded theory approach. This village is located in Dalahoo Township, Kermanshah province. The population used in this study included residents of Harir village. Data were collected using in-depth interview, direct and non-participatory observations, field notes as well as group discussions. In order to give depth and breaths to current study, slides, films, library and internet search have also been used. To cross check the external validity of the results, a meeting was called between the researchers and the experts in Travel and Tourism Organization in Kermanshah province.One of the limitations of qualitative study is lack of statistical generalization. Although some researchers believe that qualitative studies are rich in nature and provide in-depth information on topic being studied. In other words, the depth of phenomenon under study is more important than extend of area as a focal point in the study. Data analysis started while collecting data simultaneously, For example, during open coding, the researchers tried to comprehend the relationships between concepts. After constant comparison, a total of 43 concepts were identified. A special code was then given to each key concept. A total of 33 key concepts were derived from deep interviews with rural experts and were given a label of (M). In addition, a total of 10 key concepts were derived from in-depth interviews with the experts in Travel and Tourism Organization which were given a label of (K).Results: During the axial coding, concepts obtained in open coding were compared and analyzed for sub-categories and final categories with new meaning emerged. These new categories were listed as fallows: lack of infrastructure, lack of timely information dissemination, reduction in cultural attractions, lack of understanding of tourism among rural people and village administrators, lack of governmental attention to rural tourism, sudden climate change, inadequate and inaccurate information, and lack of motivation among rural administrators. Finally, in selective coding, sentences that were coded in previous step were combined to present relationships among categories and concepts. Thus, the conceptual framework of the study started to emerge. The comparison of concepts led the researchers to two main categories of “problems” and “challenges” that connected the concepts together. Results revealed that problems in Harir village are: lack of infrastructure, lack of understanding of tourism among rural people and village administrators, reduction in cultural attraction, lack of governmental support, and lack of timely information dissemination. Moreover, the limitations included inadequate and inaccurate informations, and sudden climatic changes.Conclusion: Based upon the results of the study, it is recommended that rural administrators provide motivational incentives among rural investors to initiate financial and technical support in tourism projects. The implementation and monitoring of these projects should be given to the local villagers. All amenities such as hotels, parkings, and other facilities should be included in the project. Moreover, building structures should adhere to traditional architecture in order to preserve the beauty of local landscape. The estimation of incoming tourists in given Seasons can help to organize accommodation for guests and visitors. It is further suggested that through educational schemes, rural villagers be made aware of advantages in rural tourism and how it can benefit their welfare. Using mass media as well as in-service training of rural policy-makers could assist in bringing about the public awareness. It is further suggested that in order to preserve the cultural heritage among rural people and help preserve rural attraction. Rural administrators can also organize fairs to demonstrate rural handcrafts. This can be achieved by inviting the experts in rural handicrafts to teach villagers how to preserve these precious arts and crafts. In regards to climatic changes, it is imperative when planning for tourist advertisement. For example, rural administrators and Tourist and Travel Organization can provide tourist calendars to wake people aware of the best times for making visits.

Introduction: Culture as an accepted value, life style, customs and rituals of a society and acceptable norms of communities have always been the creators of the identity and arts as a guarantor of survival and durability of the societies. The economic-orientation of development and developmental perspectives in recent decades are among the most shortcomings and deficiencies of western development paradigms. This caused the negligence from indigenous and apparently irrational (from occidental point of view) elements in the paradigms of development. Hence, developmental theories and consequently local communities, especially in developing countries, deprived from the opportunities, contribution, roles and effects of local cultures and worthwhile historical expereinces after war. In addition to the guarantee of the community participation in developmental processes and so the success of theme, the culture-orientation of development paradigms is also the most assured way to successful encountering the globalization process in the information era. The wide spread of cultural contexts and scarce of valid and codified data sources are the main difficulties of any study in this area, especially in rural communities.Methodology: This paper has been derived from a study with the aim of analyzing the cultural behaviors in rural regions in Iran. Thus, the main purpose of the study is to represent a spatial analysis of inequalities as well as homogenities of Iranian rural areas in cultural contexts, in a provincial scale. For this purpose, the categorization and cultural taxation of rural areas was done in addition to the cultural rankings of the areas.The needed data have been extracted from the 29 volumes of the national research project reports entitled, "Iranian cultural behaviors in rural areas" as unique data source in this field. With applying a detailed multi-stage processing procedure on the initial gathered data, by using some multi criteria analysis (MCA) methods, 20 composed secondaries as well as 3 final indicators were obtained as the main indicators of the study. These indicators have been measured in the fields such as "cultural activities", "availability to the cultural commodities" and "consumption of the cultural commodities" contexts. Description of these 23 variables and explanation of the 28 provinces rural areas situations for them was accomplished by analyzing the of taxation in order to ranking and determining the optimality degrees of the study areas in above 3 major fields. Results showed an undesirable situation of cultural consumption compared to the available cultural commodities and generally the low and unfavorable levels of cultural productivity in rural areas, although the availabilities have not gat a suitable situation as well.Results: Among the cultural activities, the social affaires with the mean of 29.08 percent is in the best situation. The best situation in the field of availabilities and cultural commodities belongs to the multi media furnitures such as tape and video with the mean of 52.21 percent. Listen to the radio with the mean 16.46 percent have also the best situation in the field of cultural consumption. Artistic activities (with the mean of 5.07 percent), newspaper and magazine availabilities (with the mean of 6.43 percent) and watching movies and theaters (with the mean of 1.95 percent) have respectively the less situations in aforesaid 3 cultural behaviours. Attention to these results reveals that, although the mean of availabilities is less than 30 percent, nevertheless the highest rate of cultural consumption as well as the mean of cultural activities are less than the lowest rate of availabilities. This means that the cultural prodactivity in rural areas is mach lesser than the cultural possibilities and availabilities. The widest range, or in the other word, the most cutural differentoations belong to the availabilities and cultural commodities. Contrarily, the cultural consumptions have had the most similarities among the rural areas.Religious affairs have had the most attendance in the field of cultural activities and the artistic activities have received the less ones. The less cultural consumption have been pertained to movie and theater and the most consumption have also been pertained to the radio and television. This happened in a context which the most available cultural commodities are tape and video. A noticoable matter in the context of artistic activities is that the areas with the weakest cultural situations, based on the rankings at the following, such as the Sistan & Baluchestan, Kermanshah, Chahar Mahal & Bakhtiari, Kohgiluyeh & Boyer-Ahmad, Lorestan and Hormozgan provinces have also had the highest ranks in local celebrations and ceremonies among the cultural activities. The first ans the last orders in both cultural consumptions and availabilities are the same and belong to the Tehran and Sistan & Baluchestan rural areas respectively. Distaces of these two provinces from the other ones are so much that there specified as dissimilar groups at the beginning of the taxation algorithm.The cultural clustering of rural areas was also done by using the cluster analysis in three Categories (weak, moderate and almost good) with 5, 16 and 7 provinces respectively. The weak class or category contains the rural areas of Sistan & Baluchestan, Kurdestan, Qom, Ardebil and Kermanshah provinces. Tehran, Isfahan, Semnan, Bushehr, Mazandaran, Zanjan and Yazd are also the almost good group rural areas. The other remained provinces rural areas stand the moderate group.Conclusion: Based on the ranking orders and clustering results, although the orders in each of 3 above fields are different, but the most undesirable situations belongs always to the frontier localities such as Kordestan and Sistan provinces, which must be considered as a deliberative and considerable matter.

Introduction: Agricultural credit is among important factors for development. It capitalizes farmers and entrepreneurs to undertake new investments or adopt new technologies (Khandker and Faruqee, 2003: 197). Access to credit includes direct implications for household welfare and business performance, since credit could be used to increase the equity in the business (Briggeman et al., 2007: 1-2). Findings of Sadr’s (2003: 36) revealed that bank loans well affect capital formation and accumulation in Iranian agricultural sector in period of 1963-93. However, there are evidences that a significant portion of farmers, who receive agricultural loans, spend them in non-agricultural activities.In fact, agricultural loans are fungible and transformable because most of them are cash loans. Fungibility of agricultural credits in turn causes moral hazard. Moral hazard in financial markets occurs when the lender is subjected to the hazard that the borrower has an incentive to engage in activities that are unsatisfactory from the lender's viewpoint (Swinnen and Gow, 1999, 24). Agricultural loans play an important role in agricultural sector’s flourishing, thus surveying the viewpoints and attitudes of agricultural loans’ borrowers regarding to effective factors on desirable use of agricultural loans will be essential. This study has designed on the basis of theoretical model developed by the researchers.Methodology: The inquiry aims to investigate spending channels of these loans and to determine the effective factors on their spending in agricultural sector. The sample (n=120) was selected by stratified sampling technique, from population including Khoy county farmers who had borrowed agricultural loans during the years between 2002-2007 at least once (N=4592).Results: The study showed that the mean age of borrowers was 45 years, and the share of aged borrowers (about 21 percent) was 3.6 times of the young age group’s share (about 6 percent). Most of the farmers (47.9 percent) were illiterate or they had primary or informal educations; but 2.5 and 5.1 percent of them had agricultural and non-agricultural academic educations respectively. Average area of every plot of agricultural land was 1.35 ha. On the other hand, every plot of about 50 percent of the farmers was less than 1 ha. Of course, 90.9 percent of farmers had cultivated a plot of land which has been less than 2 hectares during the crop years of 2006-07, which had led to an inappropriate situation for agricultural investments. Agricultural loan’s per capita was $ 4.58 thousands.Only 37.8 percent of farmers have used their loans in agricultural activities completely. In contrast, 18.4 percent of them have spent the entire of loans in non-agricultural activities and the rest have faced with moral hazards partly. Most of the loans (62.5 percent) were agricultural input purchase loans considered as farm operating loans. Usually the amount of this type of credit is less than tied credit (credit component is- or will be - tied to specific project activities).The results of stepwise multiple regression method revealed that the independent variables including "the adjusted amount of loan", "monitoring times on the loan use" as well as the "area of the planted land in 2006-2007" have explained 60 percent of variances of dependent variable "amount of agricultural loans used in the agricultural activities". Therefore, it is suggested that the amount of granted loans must rise to such extent that they could support farmers financially to develop their production capacities and possibilities, especially with regard to economic deprivation of the borrowers. In this regard, increasing the share of tied loans, which are less fungible, can also reduce moral hazards and create new production possibilities. Of course, given to smallholding agriculture, it is suggested that high value loans lend only to eligible borrowers. In other words, loan officers must investigate that if the loan applicants could develop their production capacity with these loans. However, this recommendation does not mean neglecting small farmers (the majority of all of the farmers in Iran).Conclusion: In order to alleviate poverty and extend social justice, lenders should pay special attention to them. However, besides, enabling the environment should be provided for effective use of the funds. Training, obtaining necessary inputs and services, making farming more profitable, etc., can help to the creation of enabling environment for desirable use of agricultural loans.Also because of significant positive effect of expert's monitoring on productive use of agricultural loans and given to the poor borrower’s screening mechanism, it is recommended that the loan officers increase the monitoring times after lending. On the other hand, given to significant positive effects of administrative ownership on spending loans in farming activities, land consolidation is recommended.

Introduction: Drought, as a natural disaster and an inevitable phenomenon, has frequently occurred in the vast areas of different countries, especially in hot and dry climates for a long time and has engendered many economic domages as well as social and environmental ones. Obviously, the occurrence of drought in no way can be prevented, because it is a stochastic and unexpected phenomenon; but in this field, the adverse effects of drought can be reduced largely through planning and conducting some coherent plans and compatible strategies with local conditions affected by drought. However, the first step to cope appropriately with drought and its effects is to identify and understand this phenomenon and its effects on different areas particularly in rural regions according to more vulnerability of them, so it will help to develop and apply effective strategies and mechanisms. Regarding the importance of this fact, the main purpose of this study has been analyzing and explaining the effects of drought in the rural regions of Zanjan county.Methodology: The research method of the current study in terms of the nature, rate and degree of control and method of data collection was quantitative, non-experimental and field research, respectively. The statistical population of the study consisted of 683 farmers of Hajarash village (N=683). According to Morgan & Krejcie table, 250 persons of them were selected by Simple Random Sampling for doing the study (n=250). A questionnaire was used to collect the data which consisted of two parts including respondents’ profile (4 variables) and respondents’ viewpoints about the importance of each of the drought effects (41 variables). A ten-point scale (0=the least and 10=the highest) was used to measure the second part. The validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by a panel of experts. A pilot study was conducted to establish reliability of the instrument. Cronbach alpha's coefficients for main scales of questionnaire including respondents’ viewpoints about the importance of economic, social and environmental effects of drought were 0.91, 0.87 and 0.89, respectively. Collected data were analyzed using the SPSS software. For data analysis, descriptive statistics (including frequency, percentage and mean) and inferential statistics (including factor analysis) were used; In addition, Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was applied to assessment of drought severity.Results: The results related to the SPI for studying the drought severity in the study region showed that during the years 1385-1386, mild drought-and in the year 1387, moderate drought- has occurred in the Hajarash village. Also, the factor analysis was used to categorize the effects of drought in Hajarash village and determining the extent of explained variances by each of variables. The findings of factor analysis revealed that three factors named as economic, environmental and social-psychological explained 61.39% of total variances of drought effects in the Hajarash village which showed the appropriate amount explained variances by factors are extracted.Conclusion: Based on the main results of the survey, several mechanisms and suggestions including: giving the grant loans or less- interest grants based on household livelihood status and monitoring practices on the distribution of loans to ensure equitable distribution of facillities, more attention from government to the insurance fund of agricultural products as an effective structure in reducing crisis through timely payment of damages and the complete support and funding of employment and devoting the sufficient funds for creating the employment in the study area (in the economic dimension), identification and extension of appropriate varieties and species compatible with regional climate as a substitute cultivation for some products with high water requirements, development and extension of horticultural crops compatible with regional climate in the drought condition, providing the sustainable development infrastructure of water resources such as drainage, drip irrigation systems and building the reservoir dams (in the environmental dimension), creating the judicial/ legal appropriate organizations and structures to resolve internal conflicts in the use of water and pasture, developing advisory strategies and programs to reduce stress and anxiety in critical drought conditions and developing the effective protection laws and strategies to support families affected by drought (in the social- psychological dimension) were presented in order to manage and reduce the negative effects of drought in the study area.

Introduction: One of the main objectives for the stability of the governments is to provide welfare and development for societies. Therefore, the development process leads to government’s function. There’s an agreement on the importance of governments to expedite the development process in the third-world literature. And it’s considered as one of the elements which have had a strong affectin changing process of these societies such as rural changings. Rural development is one of the developmental plans for any country which is used to change the economical-social structure of the rural regions and these plans are done by the government and their agents in rural areas. In Iran, the government uses various means in order to achieve rural development and has done different movements too.The government policies and practical movements usually are performed as short, mid and long time programs. Planning started to be done since the central government in Iran was born and after 1316. Having passed seventy years, ten civil plans have prepared in the country and among them nine programs have started to be performed. During the Islamic revolution in Iran, six programs were prepared which five of them were done and after the victory also four programs were planned. By identifying the activities and major and minor movements' indicators, these plans identify the government’s movements in different fields. The field of rural society is one field of planning which governments begin performing their plans in different fields based on the short and mid-time programs. We can see parts of investing result in social system which here we focus on empowerment in Abouzeid abad. 7741 million rials in rural area and 25817 million rials are cost indirectly during the years 1374-1387.Methodology: This study is based on a basic-practical research. Basic, in one hand because it’s tried to evaluate and analyze a theory in an area iand practical on the other hand, due to using the research results in civil investment in rural areas. The case study of this research has been chosen by finding out the government’s real function and the influences of the laws and its duties. So, by collecting the data and informations of an area, we can analyze the role of the government and its function in rural area development in an objective way. Documental and analytic methods are used to perform this research. The sample volume is 183 by using the Cochran method. The number of samples were asked and distributed on the popular portion in a rural area in a random way. The data were analyzed by defining solidatary colorationKendal B.Results: Field Studies have shown that there’s no soldatary and meaningful relation between the civil investment rate and village empowerment and we can see it in some analyzed indicators such as increasing science and knowledge, stability of educated people in rural areas, increasing cooperation in making decision which, unfortunately, civil investment doesn’t have any influences on these indicators. Correlation between the level of education and migration is 0/602. Thus with higher levels of education, the probability to emigration increases. Therefore, there is no relationship between migration and civil investment. Correlation between those in decision making and invest reconstruction shows that weak and negative correlation exists between the two (-0/404). Thus any amount of civil investment will increase the number of people inclined to participate in economic decision reduced. And following this issue, having passed over 30 years of planning and performing the civil plans after the Islamic revolution, the rural society sees itself as a result of some changes in higher levels.Conclusion: Rural habitants do not themselves as ones who have a main role. Obviously, what is said as empowerment in theoretical topics, differs cansideraldy with facts of Iranian societies. Although, some of their points can be noticeable. The most important part of empowerment is to achieve power to control the influential forces in human’s life which it can be individually and socially. Also, cooperation is not being used noticed as a main or serious issue in civil investment process and they believe that civil investment is an activity that have to be done in a specific time and place and cooperation is a means for fascinating this process. That’s why there’s no sign of empowerment in discussions.

Introduction: Hadi Rural Planning (HRP) was developed by Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning in order to improve infrastructure elements in rural regions across Iran. The plan aimed to improve rural livelihood through physical construction of roads, electricity, drinking water, sanitation, etc. Although HRP has been going on for sometimes in Kermanshah province, less attention has been paid to its effectiveness. Therefore, the purpose of this qualitative study is evaluating the HRP in Karnachi village located 5kms. far from Kermanshah city.Methodology: In order to gain rich data, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques were used to collect data. Social mapping, ven diagramming, matrix scoring, and transect walking were among techniques used in this study. Moreover, focus group interviews and observation was also utilized in this study. A meeting with rural villagers was planned through village council in the mosque during the time most convenient for local people. The local villagers were asked in advance to participate in the study. Among participants, women were also asked to participate with the consent of their husbands. Social mapping was used to break the ice between local villagers and research team. Ven diagramming was used to identify which group of government bodies local villagers contact the most and the least. Matrix scoring was used to rank problems villagers are currently facing after HRP has been implemented in their village. Transect was used to walk with the local residents around the village in order to observe HRP improvements or problems at close as possible. Focus group interview was utilized when it was felt that participatory approaches were not very effective among some rural villagers. Data was analyzed using grounded theory approach as proposed by Strauss and Corbin. Grounded theory refers to theory that is developed inductively from a corpus of data. If done well, this means that the resulting theory at least fits one data set perfectly. This contrasts with theory derived deductively from grand theory, without the help of data, and which could therefore turn out to fit no data at all. Three steps are used to analyze data with grounded theory approach: Open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. Open coding is part of an analysis concerned with identifying, naming, categorizing, and describing phenomenon found in the text. Axial coding is the process of relating codes to each other, through a combination of inductive and deductive thinking. In selective coding, the researcher chooses one category to be the core category, and relates all other categories derived during previous process to that category. One important consideration in data analysis is that when the researcher feels all added information derived from interview is of no further use, theoretical saturation occurs. This means that no further data collection is required.Results: Results of this qualitative research indicated that lack of infrastructure, poor service centers, and environmental as well as social and economic factors have created major problems for Karnachi local residents. In other words, HRP have failed to address these problems and has acted as the major reason for that being non-participatory nature of HRP. The plan has also caused reverse migration in that city dwellers have taken advantage of fertile lands in the village by building summer resorts and recreational sites for personal uses. To cross check our findings, two separate meetings were set up with local council members as well as city board members. During the meetings, HRP administrators confirmed our conclusions, that more participatory approaches are needed if the successful HRP all over the country is the case.Conclusion: Local people should participate in the design and layout processes of any infrastructural facilities such as roads, sanitation, water, electricity for an effective HRP. The results of this study include implications for HRP policy-makers in Iran as a whole and Kermanshah province in particular. Local villagers in Karnachi region in particular - and rural Iran in general - should be actively involved in the physical layout of their home villages if it is expected that HRP interventions to be more effective. Although in HRP objectives it is clearly stated that local villagers should dominate any decision-makings about the reconstruction of their villages, limited attention is being paid to the above mentioned objectives. Furthermore, it seems that the rural developers are using the name of participation to achieve financial support for HRP whereas in reality local villagers are "focipulating" rather than "participating".