Agricultural Engineering
Year:2018 | Volume:41 | Issue:2 |Papers Count:9

Introduction: Among the micronutrients required by plants, iron deficiency has the maximum limitation for agricultural crops. Iron plays an important role in synthesis of chlorophyll, energy transfer in plants, formation and synthesis of special enzymes, and fixation of nitrogen. Deficiency of iron in plants causes chlorosis or yellowing of young leaves. Iron deficiency is developed due to imbalance of metal ions including copper and manganese, large phosphorus in soil, poor aeration, low temperatures, soil iron deficiency, low organic content, and high concentration of bicarbonate in the root environment. To solve the problem of iron deficiency in plants, very expensive methods are used. Usage of solid wastes of copper melting factories such as slag as soil modifying materials can be useful in iron nutrition. The possibility of using reverb furnace slag of Sarcheshmeh Copper complex as an iron fertilizer was examined in a calcareous soil. Since copper slag contain considerable amount of iron (53. 8% iron oxides), therefore, its proper management can solve the problem of iron deficiency in calcareous soils. Materials and Methods: To investigate the effect of copper slag and organic compounds on iron availability and growth of Sorghum plant, (Speed Feed cultivar), a soil sample was harvested with low soil absorbable iron and organic compound. After air-drying, the soil samples were passed through a 2-mm sieve. Some physiochemical properties of the soil sample used, organic compounds, and the slag were characterized by typical experimental methods. The experimental design was performed as a factorial experiment (copper slag and organic compounds) in a completely randomized design with three replicates. The experimental treatments included five levels of organic compound (pistachio shell and cow manure at two levels of 2%, 4% and the control sample) and 10 levels of iron (copper slag, copper slag with sulfur, copper slag with sulfur and thiobacillus, acidic slag (each at two levels), Fe-EDDHA, and control sample). The experimental treatments were incubated for 3 months. Treatments were then applied to 3 kg samples of soils and the treated samples were incubated in plastic containers at field capacity (FC) moisture content for up to 90 days. At the end of incubation period, 10 sorghum seeds were cultivated in each pot. Foliar application of Fe-EDTA with a concentration of 5 ppm in addition to the mentioned treatments. Harvesting sorghum shoot was performed 90 days after the cultivation. The plant samples were dried for 48 h at 70° C. After digestion of the plant samples by wet oxidation method, concentration of iron, zinc, nickel and cobalt were measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Soil samples were also taken from the pots. After being air-dried, the soil samples were passed through a 2-mm sieve. Amount of electrical conductivity, soluble sodium, concentration of calcium and magnesium as well as iron, zinc, nickel, and cobalt were measured. All statistical analyses were performed using SAS software. Means of different treatments were compared using LSD (P ≤ 0. 05) test. Results and Discussion: Application of acidic slag increased the soluble sodium and sodium absorption ratio and decreased the soil absorbable iron content. Application of 4 times critical level as slag (S4) increased iron and zinc absorbable by soil, as well as increased concentration of the plant iron. The copper slag with sulfur and thiobacillus developed the maximum absorbable zinc in soil. Comparison of the organic compounds indicated that cow manure has a greater influence on the amount of absorbable iron in soil, iron concentration and uptake by the plant than pistachio shell. On the other hand, with reduction of the concentration of heavy metals, its application is recommended in comparison with pistachio shell. The content of zinc, nickel, and cobalt in the studied plant did not exceed the toxicity level. Heavy metals have low mobility in the soil and are often stabilized by soil colloids or precipitate as different compounds. For this reason, their mobility and transference to shoot diminish. Conclusion: The slag from copper melting has micro nutrient including iron and zinc. Therefore, it can be concluded that the copper slag has the potential of a source supplying elements for plants. These results confirm the lack of use of acidic treatments. In addition of iron and zinc availability for plants, measurement of other heavy metals in the plant showed that the concentration of measured heavy metals was below their toxicity level. Therefore, suitability of this compound for agriculture will be confirmed. Since addition of heavy metals to soil has various environmental effects, thus repetitive use of slag and its use in large amounts are not recommended. As in absorption of nutrients, immobility in soil, stabilization of metal in the root, and preventing its transference to shoot organs are among the mechanisms of plant when exposed to high concentration of heavy metals, it is suggested that the amount of heavy metals be studied in the root.

Introduction: The trap efficiency of sediment catcher plays an important role in the study of wind erosion and its measurements. The sediment trap efficiency generally varies with particle size distribution and wind velocity. Worldwide, wind tunnel facility has been used by many researchers to determine the efficiency of sediment samplers designed for the measurement of the deposition of Aeolian dust. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the efficiency of BSNE sampler, the transportability of sediment particles per wind velocity, using wind tunnel facility under laboratory conditions. In addition, a new parameter by which sediment transportability can be quantified was introduced. Materials and Methods: The wind tunnel experiments were carried out in an open circulation wind tunnel at the Soil Erosion and Conservation Laboratory, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Iran. The wind tunnel consists of three sections including 1) wind generator section for producing different wind velocities, 2) test area section in which soil sample is placed and 3) sediment collector section. The wind tunnel has a uniform cross section with width and height of 80 cm by 80 cm and a total length of 12 m, with a working section of 7 m in length. The wind velocity can be varied continuously from 1 to 30 m s-1 at 40 cm height equal to 175 km/h at 10 m height. The soil used for the experiments is taken from the surface layer (0-20 cm depth) of a cultivated land from Kerman province (30 14 N and 57 06 E). The soil sample at first was air-dried, thoroughly mixed and then crushed to pass separately through 2, 4. 75 and 8 mm sieve sizes in order to prepare three subsamples with different max size of 2 (D2mm), 4. 75 (D4. 75mm), 8 (D8mm) mm. Experiments were done as factorial based on completely random design with three replications. The factors were the height of sampler, wind velocity and soil aggregate size. Three wind velocities of 6, 10, 14 m s-1 at 40 cm height were introduced over the leveled soil surface with 7 m length and the sediment was collected using BSNE sampler at different heights of 10, 30, 50 and 70 cm at the outlet of the wind tunnel. Also, the total mass of soil loss was measured by differential weighing method for each erosion event. Results and Discussion: Results showed that the sediment flux decreased with increasing height at different wind velocities and was quantified using an exponential function, satisfactorily. The sediment transport rate near soil surface for soils D2mm, D4. 75mm and D8mm ranged from 0. 28 to 2. 11, 0. 19 to 1. 06 and 0. 23 to 0. 65 g cm-2 min-1, respectively. This implies the soil having coarser aggregates exhibits less erodibility. Moreover, sediment flux at all heights was increased with increasing wind velocity, whereas it was reduced as soil surface roughness increased. In general, the efficiencies of the BSNE samplers varied from 53. 2% to 82. 1%, depending on soil aggregate size and wind velocity. The efficiency of BSNE obtained for D2mm, D4. 75mm and D8mm, at wind velocity of 6 m s-1 was 61. 4, 53. 2 and 77. 5%, at wind velocity of 10 m s-1 was 56. 5, 78. 7, 69. 5% and at wind velocity of 14 m s-1 was 62. 4, 79. 1, 82. 1%, respectively. Also, the results indicated that the transportability of sediment particles per wind velocity decreased with height, which was described through an exponential function. Overall, the particles in the size range of 125 to 500 micron exhibited the maximum selectivity and frequency in the sediments collected at 10 and 30 cm heights. The finding of this study revealed the high importance of vertical distribution of sediment size particles and their selectivity in wind erosion studies. Conclusion: The finding of this study indicated that most sediment particles were transported near the soil surface, this means that by appropriate conservation practices such as making sufficient roughness through this height, wind erosion can be reduced, significantly. Also, it was found the soils containing coarser aggregates due to higher random roughness show less erodibility and wind erosion rates. Finally, the efficiency of sediment sampler was found to be affected by some other factors, therefore, more attention is needed in the application of these types of samplers while the calibration is of importance, as well.

Background and objective: In the assessment of land suitability, the land-production capacity is identified and the type of use is determined in proportion to that capacity. In this regard, the FAO approach has been used by many scholars in different parts of the world and Iran in land suitability assessment studies. In this approach, the most commonly used method is the parametric method. The FAO approach uses Boolean logic to assess land suitability. This logic has been criticized by a number of land evaluation researchers. Because it does not take into account the continuous nature of the soil variations along the earth's surface and the uncertainty in the measurements. To overcome these shortcomings, the fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (FAHP) was presented to determine the land suitability classes. Land suitability should be determined based on a fuzzy analytical hierarchy process, in which, unlike the FAO method, unequal importance for different land characteristics and continuity of soil variations are considered. This research was carried out with the aim of qualitative land suitability evaluation in Dashtestan area, Bushehr province for Kabkab date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L. cv Kabkab) plantation, using two methods of FAO parametric (second root formula) and fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (FAHP) and comparing these two methods. Materials and methods: The study area is located in Dashtestan region, Bushehr province, Iran; between latitudes 29º 12΄ and 29º 31΄ N and longitudes 51º 09΄ and 51º 59΄ E. Its surface area is 23000 ha. The mean annual rainfall in the area is 250 mm and its mean annual temperature is 27 ° C. The soil temperature and moisture regimes are hyperthermic and ustic, respectively. The physiographic unit which is river alluvial plain is very gently sloping. 80 % of the Kabkab date palm plantation is present in the study area. In order to achieve the objectives of this research, 50 date palm groves, each with an area of at least 0. 5 ha and a palm of Kababab cultivar, aged 20 to 25 years, with the same management level and having different soil, were selected as observation points. Then a soil profile was dug randomely in each date palm grove, with dimensions of 1. 5 (length), 1 (width) and 1. 5 (depth) meters and described, using soil profile description guide. Soils were sampled from different horizons of the profiles and the required physical and chemical analyses were carried out on the samples, according to the standard laboratory methods. The drilling site was chosen to have a date palm tree in each of the four corners of the profile. The yield of the four trees located in four corners of each profile was measured and their average yield was considered as the final yield for the corresponding profile. Meteorological data was collected for a 10 year period from the nearest synoptic station (Borazjan station, Borazjan, Bushehr). Land indices were calculated, using soil and climatic data and parametric (second root formula) and fuzzy AHP methods. Weighted average of the climatic and the soil data was used and finally a land index was calculated for each soil profile. In the fuzzy AHP method, relative weight of each of the studied criteria was determined by analytical hierarchy analysis with establishment of pair wise matrix. Degree of membership for each soil and climatic criteria was also determined through membership functions and finally, land suitability classes were determined. At the end, accuracy of the methods was also compared. Landscape characteristics such as slope, drainage and soil depth were not considered in the land evaluation, because these characteristics did not show any limitation for the date production in the study area. Results: The results of qualitative land suitability evaluation based on fuzzy AHP method showed that 96. 6 and 3. 4 percent of the studied area are classified as S2 and S3, respectively. This is in the case that based on parametric (second root formula) method, 82 and 18 percent of the studied area are marginally suitable and non-suitable, respectively. According to these results, higher land suitability classes were obtained, based on fuzzy AHP than through parametric method. Correlation between the calculated land index and the measured yield, determined for the fuzzy AHP method was higher than the one obtained for the parametric method. This proves that the fuzzy AHP is a more appropriate method for land suitability assessment for Kabkab date palm plantation in the studied area than the parametric method (second root formula). Conclusion: According to the results of this research, the fuzzy AHP is a more appropriate method for qualitative land suitability evaluation than the parametric method (second root formula) for Kabkab date palm plantation in the studied area in Bushehr province.

Extended abstract Introduction Knowledge about the soil quality in agriculatral lands and natural resources is essential for achievement the best management and maximum economic efficiency. The land use change is the important human activity in environmental ecosystems, which effect on some soil processes such as microbial activity, mineralization of carbon and nitrogen content. In addition, land use has an important role on temporal and spatial variation of soil properties and quality. Agricultural practices may affect positive or negative effect on soil quality. Intensive cultivation of plants decreases soil physical and quality, as a result of this yield of plants, production efficiency and environment quality decrease. In this research, the effect of three land uses on soil physical, fertility and quality properties were studied. Materials and methods The studied area (Hossein abad) is located 30 km far from the northern Nehbandan town (South Khorasan, Iran). To study the effect of land uses change on soil properties were selected three land uses including pomegranate (Punica granatum ), olive (Olea europaea) and wheat (Triticum aestivum ). The 45 soil samples (15 samples from each land use) were taken from surface soil (0-30 cm). Then some soil physical and fertility properties which affect the soil quality were measured and the effect of land use change from wheat cultivation to olive and pomegranate gardens during the recent 20 years were studied. In addition, soil quality in each land use was determined based on cornel university test. To compare soil properties and quality, the randomized complete block design was applied. Results and discussion The results showed that land use change had a significant effect on organic carbon, mean weight diameter of aggregates (MWD), water stable aggregates (WSA), macro nutrients (N, P, and K), and some micro nutrients (Fe and Mn) (P < 0. 001). Comparison of means demonstrated that the difference between organic carbon content in olive and pomegranate land uses was not significant, and the content of OC in both land uses was significantly higher than wheat land use. Olive and pomegranate land uses cause to stability of soil structure increase, probably due to reduction the traffic of wheals and also somewhat increasing the organic carbon as a result of littering. Therefore, the MWD in olive land use was significantly higher than two land uses and the lowest value was obtained in what land use. Also, the value of WSA in three land uses was significantly different (P < 0. 05) and their content in olive and wheat land uses were the maximum and minimum, respectively. The concentration of total nitrogen in pomegranate land use was more significant than two other land uses (P < 0. 05). But the concentration of phosphorous (P), potassium (K), Fe and Mn in wheat land use was the highest content and significantly greater than other two land uses. Despite the concentrations of P, K, and Fe nutrients in pomegranate land use were the lowest value, but, there were no significant difference between the concentration of them in olive and pomegranate land uses. It seems that this variation especially P and Fe is probably due to pH and the Ca and Mg concentration and creation insoluble component of Fe, Mn and P in these land uses. According to the results of cornel university test, soil quality in garden land uses was decreased and the range of soil quality score was varied from 49. 5 (olive) to 61. 2 (wheat). Among the soil properties affecting the soil quality, fertility and chemical properties such as electrical conductivity (EC), absorption sodium ratio (SAR) and somewhat pH of soil saturated extract decreased the soil quality in olive land use. Also, OM, Fe, Zn, and Mn decreased the soil quality in 3 land uses, of course in olive and pomegranate land uses, micro nutrients (Fe and Mn) had the more effect on decreasing the soil quality compared to wheat land use. In addition, bulk density (Bd), mean weight diameter of aggregates (MWD), aeration porosity (AC), P, K, and Cu contents increased soil quality in all 3 land uses. Conclusion In general, when wheat land use change to olive and pomegranate land uses decreased some soil properties and quality in arid area of Nehbandan, probably due to low quality of irrigation water.

Introduction: Potassium is a macroelement essential for plant growth and its importance in agriculture is well understood. Potassium in clay minerals is an important source of potassium for plants in many soils. No precise information is available on the impact of lime on potassium uptake by plants. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the effect of lime on K availability form phlogopite mineral in alfalfa rhizosphere. Materials and Methods: This study was conducted using a completely randomized design with factorial arrangement. Alfalfa was grown in media containing a mixture of quartz sand and phlogopite, different levels of lime (0, 2, 5, 12, 25%) and under two types of nutrient solutions (complete and potassium free) with three replications for a period of six months. Alfalfa shoots and roots were harvested and their potassium concentration was measured. The Data obtained from this experiment was statistically analyzed using SAS software and comparison of means was performed with the LSD test. Results and Discussion: The results showed that both shoot and root biomass was significantly affected by lime. Potassium concentration in shoot and root significantly reduced as the level of lime increased. The amount of soluble calcium increases as the level of lime in medium increases. This is mainly due to the hydrolysis of lime which also reduces the ratio of potassium to calcium and magnesium. This causes a great decline in potassium uptake by plant. Reduced uptake from the root surfaces of the plants in medium containing lime can also be caused by calcium oxalate precipitation on the root surfaces due to the abundance of calcium ions in the the root zone. Despite the fact that the amount of potassium supplied by different media has been the same, plants were not able to absorb equal quantity of potassium. Plants grown in lime-containing pots were indirectly deficient in potassium. Indirect exposure of plant to potassium deficiency means that, despite the high soil available K level, due to physiological reasons, potassium uptake by roots and its transfer to shoots is restricted. This is attributed to the negative effects of high concentration of magnesium and calcium compared to that of potassium in soil. Potassium concentration of plant roots was less than that of the shoots. This is mainly due to higher demand for K in shoots as compared to that in roots. Besides, the ability of plants to transfer potassium from root to shoot is very high. Shoot dry weight in plants with a complete nutrient solution major than the plants with a potassium free nutrient solution. Maximum dry weight was found in plants supplied with the complete nutrient solution with no lime added. In contrast, plants supplied with potassium free nutrient solution grown in pots containing 25% lime had the least dry weight. Lower root biomass could be caused by differences in physical characteristics of the root environment due to the presence of lime. Under potassium free nutrient solution, the amount of potassium uptake was significantly influenced by the amount of lime as such that the least potassium uptake of shoot and root occurred in treatments with %25 lime. The maximum K uptake (145. 84 mg/pot) was obtained in plants treated with the complete nutrient solution. There was a highly significant correlation between the shoot dry weight and potassium uptake and also between the shoot dry weight and potassium concentration indicating that the plant shoot yield increases as the K concentration and uptake increase. Conclusion: The results obtained in this study clearly indicate that the presence of lime in the root zone could be a limiting factor for potassium uptake by plants. Although the concentration of potassium in plants was in the sufficient range defined by standards, but potassium uptake significantly reduced as the level of lime in medium increased. The decreasing trend was more obvious in the plants treated with potassium free nutrition solution. Plants treated with potassium free nutrient solution with no lime added to the medium have been able to take up a high amount of potassium. It appears that plant roots can influence on clay minerals to release potassium by the secretion of H+. But the presence of lime in the medium could release high level of Ca2+ ions into the solution, which, in turn, could reduce the release of potassium from phlogopite and its uptake by plants. In general, in media containing micaceous minerals as the only source of potassium, the presence of lime can have a negative impact on potassium release from minerals and its uptake by plants. Therefore, in calcareous soils with high potassium storage, the level of lime should be considered when potassium fertilizer is recommended. Besides, the amendment of highly calcareous soils by organic matters is suggested to improve the soil physical properties in order to have a better K uptake.

Investigating the application of biochar, bentonite clay and polyvinyl acetate polymer on some mechanical properties of sand deposits Introduction Wind erosion seriously threatens bare soils and is recognized as a global environmental problem; however, little is known about this process in comparison to rainfall or tillage erosion. Due to the heavy costs of controlling wind erosion and the difficulty of detecting which control measure is the most effective, the correct selection of technical methods is indispensable for a suitable land management. Since the last decades, the methods of sand stabilization studied are diverse, but basically based on wind speed reduction by including chemical, mechanical and biological methods. One of the most important methods of stabilizing sandy soils is the use of mulches. In recent years, due to the disproportionate development of residential in peri-urban areas, humans use polymeric and oil mulches to stabilize sandy soils. Therefore, in this research, the effects of bentonite clay, polyvinyl acetate and palm biochar on reducing soil erosion by wind in peri-urban areas were investigated. Methods and Materials Three selected treatments were compared with a control plot without any treatment: palm biochar, polyvinyl acetate and bentonite clay. In order to prepare the palm biochar, palm remnants including the trunk, foliage and palm leaves were poured into the mill and turned into small pieces. The fragments were passed through a 2 mm sieve. The remnants transmitted from the sieve were poured into the trays of the discharger unit and placed inside a discharger at 350° C for 4 hours, and the biochemicals were prepared to the extent necessary for this research. Polyvinyl acetate treatment was provided by Isfahan Resin Co. and the bentonite clay by the Derin Kashan enterprise (both of them from Isfahan, Iran). To apply the treatments, each of them was mixed with a certain proportion of water per m2: i) 20 g l-1of palm biochar treatments; ii) 7 g l-1 of polyvinyl acetate treatment; and, iii) 20 g l-1 of bentonite clay. In order to apply the treatments, 36 galvanized trays with a same size (5×35×105 cm) were prepared and filled up from the air to the top edge with sand. After 1, 2, 4, 10 and 20 weeks some mechanical and physical properties were measured in laboratory. Results and Discussion A significant difference was observed among different treatments in terms of the impact on aggregates formations and stabilities at different moments. The application of bentonite clay treatment significantly increased the stability of formed aggregates compared to control treatment. The rest of treatments showed lower aggregability. The mean weigh diameter (MDW) for the control plot was 0. 28 mm. The lowest MWD was obtained by the palm biochar treatment, which increased by 20. 1, 14. 9, 9, 2. 5 and 1. 6% after the first, second, fourth, tenth and twentieth weeks of application, respectively. Polyvinyl acetate treatment increased MDW by 65. 1, 61. 6, 58. 8, 41. 9 and 31. 5% after the first, second, fourth, tenth and twentieth weeks, respectively. The highest MWD was obtained by bentonite clay treatment, which generated an increase by 77. 8, 71, 65. 1, 59. 9 and 49. 7% in the first, second, fourth, tenth and twentieth weeks, respectively). The images from thin sections of bentonite clay and polyvinyl acetate treatments showed that soil particles were joined to form larger aggregates in all of cases. No significant differences was observed for hydraulic conductivity at different times were observed. There was a significant difference among different treatments at different monitoring periods. The application of bentonite clay significantly reduced the fractal dimension. On the contrary, the lowest effect was registered for the palm biochar treatment. The effect of bentonite clay treatment on soils was higher than other selected treatments showing a reduction by 10. 6, 9. 7, 8. 7 6. 7 and 6. 3% in the first, second, fourth, tenth and twentieth weeks, respectively. The impact of different treatments on shear resistance showed that the application of the selected treatments significantly increased the shear strength in all the cases. Among the selected treatments, the effect of bentonite clay treatment on shear resistance was higher than other treatments. The lowest and the highest shear resistance were registered for the palm biochar and bentointe clay, respectively. Palm biochar increased shear resistance by 9. 3, 9. 3, 8, 5. 3 and 3. 3% compared to the control plot in the first, second, fourth, tenth and twentieth weeks after its application. On the other, bentonite clay registered the highest improvement in shear resistance by 44. 7, 44. 7, 42. 7, 37. 3 and 31. 3% in the first, second, fourth, tenth and twentieth weeks, respectively.

Introduction During the last decade, considerable progress has been made in the study of known loess deposits and their paleoclimatic implications in Northern Iran, whereas little information is available about the red soils which are beneath the these loess. So, in this study, major and trace element concentrations were analyzed on the samples from a red sequence of Iranian Loess Plateau at Golestan province. The main objectives of this research are a) to address the origin of the red soils with compare to the other geochemical results such as upper Pleistocene loess-paleosol, upper continental crust and Jiaxian Red Clays in China, b)to examine the geochemical behaviors of certain elements and their ratios such as Al2O3/Na2O, Na2O/K2O, MgO/TiO2, Rb/Sr and Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) during pedogenesis and finally, to reconstruct the early Pleistocene climate. Materials and Methods This study was carried out on a 19-m-thick sequence of deposits exposed in a limestone quarry located near the Agh Band village of Golestan province in the east of the Iranian Loess Plateau (latitude 37. 688889 N and longitude 55. 158333 E). The so-called Agh Band red sequence underlies an upper Pleistocene loess-paleosol sequence and covers yellow limestone of the Akchagyl formation belonging to the Upper Pliocene of Kopet Dagh sedimentary basin. It is the first sequence one of red soils described for the loess plateau of Iran. Based on the paleomagnetically dating, this section is formed during ~2. 4-1. 8 Ma. The present-day climate of the study area is semi-arid, with mean annual precipitation and temperature of ca. 300 mm and 17◦ C, respectively. The soil moisture regime is Xeric-Aridic and the temperature regime is Thermic. In a field campaign in autumn 2014 the morphological characteristics of the section were recorded. Based on field observations, the sequence has been subdivided into 24 units, designated consecutively as U1-U24 from the top of limestone to the bottom of the Upper Pleistocene Loess. From each unit, representative samples were taken for color measurements, grain-size and geochemical analysis. Each air-dried sample was gently crushed, taking care not affect the grain size, and then measured using a Konica-Minolta CM-700 color meter. Grain size was measured using a Malvern Mastersizer 2000 laser grain-size analyzer following the pre-treatment procedures described in the text and the concentrations of major and trace elements were determined using a PANalytical PW2403/00 X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. All of the measurements were made in the Key Laboratory of Western China’ s Environmental systems, Lanzhou University. Results and Discussion The grain-size distribution of the red section is dominated by fine-grained silts with the average of 86. 6 percent, in addition, the amount of clay and sand are 10. 9 and 2. 6 percent, respectively. Angular or sub-angular blocky structures are dominated in the red sequence. The section is mainly characterized by alternations of reddish yellow )10 YR 6/6) and brownish-red (7. 5 YR 3/6) to reddish (5YR) layers. In general, the color of the soil horizons in the red deposits is much redder than that in the overlying loess (7. 5YR vs. 10YR, respectively), and this is one of the principal differences between the red soils and the overlying loess. Another different is the amount of carbonate nodules and the size of them (up to~20 cm diameter). These soils have been subjected to relatively intensive pedogenesis, as demonstrated by the presence of clay skins and Fe-Mn coatings. The high correlation of major and trace element compositions between Agh Band red soils section, upper loess and paleosol and the Jiaxian red clay in China supports the proposal that the Agh Band red soils was wind-blown in origin. The value of CIA index (69. 6 for red soils versus 59. 8 for the upper loess deposits), Al2O3/Na2O, K2O/Na2O and Rb/Sr ratios are higher in the red deposits than in the upper Pleistocene loess, also, the lower amount of MgO/TiO2 ratio in reddish soils, suggesting stronger chemical weathering and thus a wetter climate during the formation of red soils in early Pleistocene. Conclusion Finally, our main findings are as follows: 1) The geochemical composition of the red-colored sedimentsis similar to the overlying upper Pleistocene loess suggesting a similar origin; 2) wind-blown origin of the red deposits and continuous atmospheric dust deposition in the Iranian Loess Plateau during the Early Pleistocene; 3) red soil sequence formed under wetter and more humid climate compared with the Upper Pleistocene loess.

Introduction Zinc is one of the imperative micronutrients required relatively in small concentrations in tissues for healthy growth and reproduction of plants. Zinc deficiency in plants leads to reduced membrane integrity and synthesis of carbohydrates, auxins, nucleotides, cytochromes, and chlorophyll and develops susceptibility to heat stress. The solubility of Zn is highly dependent upon soil pH and moisture and hence arid and semiarid areas are often zinc-deficient. The use of microorganisms with the aim of improving nutrients availability for plants is an important practice and necessary for agriculture. Zinc-solubilizing microorganisms can solubilize zinc from inorganic and organic pools of total soil zinc and can be utilized to increase zinc availability to plants. Therefore, the present study was carried out to isolate and characterize native zinc-solubilizing bacteria from Zea mays rhizosphere and evaluate their zinc-solubilizing potential and the effect of zinc solubilizing isolate on Zea mays growth. Materials and Methods: In vitro zinc solubilization assay of isolates was done using 0. 1% zinc from zinc oxide in both plate and broth assays. Actively growing cultures of each isolates were spot-inoculated (7  µ L) onto the agar and plates were incubated at 28° C for 48  h. The clearing zone around colony was recorded. Quantitative study of zinc solubilization was studied in 150  mL conical flasks containing 50  mL of liquid mineral salt medium. The broth was inoculated with 10  µ L of overnight grown bacterial inoculum and incubated for 72  h at 160  rpm in an incubator shaker at 28° C. After incubation, the culture broth was centrifuged and the concentration of Zn in the supernatant was estimated in atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Among these isolates, 18 isolates with a solubility index of 1 and higher were selected based on morphological, biochemical and physiological characteristics for further studies. An isolate with more ability to dissolve zinc, phosphorus, potassium and auxin production were selected for investigation the effect of isolate on Zea mays growth. Maize seeds of cultivable variety were surface sterilized with 1% sodium hypochlorite for 5  min and washed several times with sterile distilled water. Seeds were treated with inoculum containing 108  cfu• g− 1 of isolate. A factorial experiment in a completely randomized design with five replications was conducted. The treatments included two levels of bacteria B1 (control), B2 (Stenotrophomonas) and zinc sulfate fertilizer at three levels of Zn0 (control), Zn20 (20 kg/ha) and Zn40 (40 kg/ha). After 60 days of sowing, plants were removed from the tubes carefully and biometric parameters like root length, shoot length and dry mass of plants were recorded as the indicative of plant growth. Results and Discussion: A total of 50 bacterial isolates were isolated from corn rhizosphere. Of all, sixteen isolates showed solubilization halo on plate agar medium. Among the cultures, Z1, Z3, Z16 and Z12 showed the highest solubilisation zone in ZnO amended medium with maximum solubility index (1. 3). Quantitative assay for zinc solubilisation revealed that Z14 were able to dissolve 44. 8 ppm from ZnO in liquid medium. While solubility index of this isolate was lower that above mentioned isolates (1). Of all, the isolate Z14 with highest zinc solubilisation by broth assay was characterized and identified as Stenotrophomonas species based on Gram-negtive reaction and other biochemical and physiological properties. This isolate was able to produce auxin and dissolve insoluble phosphorus and potassium from the source tricalcium phosphate and vermiculte, respectively. One of these strains (Z14), Stenotrophomonas was used as inoculum in corn culture. Seed bacterization of maize with zinc solubilising Stenotrophomonas enhanced the plant growth significantly after 15 days. Results indicated a significant interaction effect of bacterium and fertilizer on shoot dry weight and chlorophyll content (P<0. 01). The maximum spad index and wet weight of aerial part obtained at present of bacterium and without using of zinc sulfate. The main effect of bacterium on wet and dry weight of root and wet weight of aerial part, root length and shoot height was significant (P<0. 01). َApplication of bacterium in all treatments caused to increased all measured parameters in th eperesence of zinc fertilizer or absence of zinc fertilizer. Conclusion: PGPR is known as a group of useful rhizospheric bacteria that increase plant growth. Today, the increasing use of PGPRs in agriculture as an alternative to chemical fertilizers to prevent environmental contamination.

Introduction Mapping the spatial distribution of soil taxonomic classes is important for informing soil use and management decisions. Digital soil mapping (DSM) can quantitatively predict the spatial distribution of soil taxonomic classes. DSM is the computer-assisted production of digital maps of soil type and soil properties. It typically implies use of mathematical and statistical models that combine information from soil observations with information contained in correlated variables and remote sensing images. Machine learning is a general term for a broad set of models used to discover patterns in data and to make predictions. Although machine learning is most often applied to large databases, it is an attractive tool for learning about and making spatial predictions of soil classes because knowledge about relationships between soil classes and environmental covariates is often poorly understood. Our objective was to compare multiple machine learning models (multinomial regression logistic, boosted regression trees and decision tree) for predicting soil great groups at Bam distinct in Kerman province. Materials and Methods The study area, Bam district was located between 58° 4΄ 17˝ to 58° 28΄ 8˝ E longitudes and 28° 52΄ 51˝ to 29° 9΄ 29˝ N latitudes (Fig. 1), at Kerman province, (Southeastern Iran). The area is surrounded by mountains (dominantly limestone and volcanic) from northwest toward southeast with major landforms included young alluvial fans and pediment, clay flat and hills. The mean annual precipitation, temperature and potential evapotranspiration are respectively 64 mm, 23. 8◦ C and 3000 mm with Aridic and Hyper thermic soil moisture and temperate regimes Stratified sampling scheme were defined in 100000 hectares, and 126 soil profiles were excavated and described by Key of soil taxonomy. Our objective was to perform and compare multiple machine learning models for predicting soil taxonomic classes (great group level). The models were used in this study including, multinomial logistic regression (MLR), boosted regression trees (BRT) and decision tree (DT). We used 80/20 training/testing split (80% of the pedon observations were used for model training and 20% for model testing). Kappa index (KI), overall accuracy (OC), Brier scores (BS), User accuracy (UA) and producer accuracy (PA) were used to compare model accuracy. Results and Discussion The profile description revealed the presence of two soil orders: Entisols and Aridisols that, subdivided in six suborders and eight great groups: Haplosalids, Haplocambids, Haplocalcids, Haplogypsids, Calcigypsids, Calciargids, Petrocalcids and Torriorthents. This testifies to the wide pedodiversity of the study area, considering that is characterized by the presence of eight soils great groups. Results showed that the geomorphology map contributed importantly to the prediction accuracy. This can be explained by the fact that the geomorphological surfaces have formed recently, or during a geological period with soil formation under conditions close to those of current processes in the arid regions. Terrain attributes and finally remote sensing indices after geomorphic surface were imported as predictors in the prediction. The best prediction result was obtained when characteristics derived from terrain, remote sensing and geomorphological processes were used together and when differentiation of geomorphological processes and overall heterogeneity identification and stratification of the study area was made. In areas where the distribution of predictors was more homogenous, the models can better understand and connect predictors and response. The spatial distribution of soils in the study area followed the distribution pattern of most geomorphological and terrain attributes. The results of model comparing indicated that decision tree was consistently the most accurate. The results of prediction accuracy of soil groups showed that the highest accuracy related Haplosalids, Calcigypsids and Petrocalcids soil great groups. The lowest of predictive quality was observed for Haplocalcids in three approaches. As a reliable and flexible approach, decision tree could be used successfully to prepare continuous digital soil maps. Conclusion The application of decision trees for prediction of soil types could be a promising alternative. In digital soil mapping, the best prediction result was obtained when parameters derived from terrain, remote sensing and geomorphological processes were used together and when differentiation of geomorphological processes and overall heterogeneity identification and stratification of the study area was made. In areas where the distribution of predictors was more homogenous, the models can better understand and connect predictors and response. Altogether, an extended digital terrain analysis approach and clear description of geomorphological, geological and pedological processes could be a promising key technology in future soil mapping.