JOURNAL OF SAFFRON RESEARCH
Year:2019 | Volume:7 | Issue:1 |Papers Count:12

Increasing the concentration of different heavy metals, such as lead, chromium and cadmium in water, soil and air can pose negative effects on the entire ecosystem and cause harmful health consequences for all forms of life. The major sources of the pollution are chemical fertilizers and pesticides. In order to investigate the contamination of heavy metals such as lead (Pb), chromium (Cr) and cadmium (Cd) in soil and areal tissues of saffron plant in Ferdows farms, a completely randomized design was used in autumn 2016. Firstly, the sampling of soil and plants from 4 different stations was done (nearby residential areas, residential areas, near the road and without specific use) with three replications. It should be noted that from each station 5 subsamples were taken and then mixed. Soil sampling was done at 0-30 and 30-60 cm depths, and the sampling of the plant was randomly taken from three tissues of petals, stamens and leaves. A total of 24 soil samples and 36 samples from different tissues of saffron plant were transferred to the laboratory. After preparation of the samples, acid digestion was performed for measured by the atomic absorption system. The results showed that the highest mean of the heavy metals concentrations in the soil were for Cr (80. 64 ± 8. 03 mg. kg-1), Pb (42. 36 ± 3. 19 mg. kg-1) and then Cd (0. 9± 0. 14 mg. kg-1). The significant difference between the different tissues of the saffron plant for Cr and copper (Pvalue >0. 05) were not observed, however, there was a significant difference for Cd at 5% level that the highest concentration was for stamens 1. 08 mg. kg-1. The highest levels of Cr, Pb and the roads observed Cd in the out of residential areas and the lowest amount of Cr, Pb and Cd were observed by the roads. The results of correlation test showed that the significant correlation between the levels of Cr concentration at 0-30 depth with Cr 30-60 depth (0. 520) while the relationship between Cr in the soil at the depth of 0-30 and Pb in the depth of 30-60 cm has a negative significant correlation (-0. 0376) at the level of 0. 05. It can be concluded that human activities such as consumption of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in saffron fields cause increase the heavy metal concentrations in soil and aerial tissues of saffron plant.

This study was conducted to study the effects of mother-corm size (0-4, 4. 1-8 and 8. 1-12 g) and different organic fertilizers (such as cow manure, humic acid (Humax® 95– WSG), an organic-mineral-based emulsion (Omic® ) and unfertilized control) on flower and corm yield of saffron. The experiment was conducted as factorial layout based on a randomized complete block design with three replications in the Research Complex of Medicinal Plants, ACECR of Southern Khorasan Province, Iran durung growing season of 2017-2018. Studied traits were dried stigma weight, dried flower weight, number of flowers, number of buds, dried bud weight, total number of corms and total weight of corms. According to the results, mother-corm size significantly affected these studied traits. The highest and lowest amount of traits were obtained in big-and small-sized corms, respectively. Dried stigma weight in big-sized corm with 82. 22 mg. m-2 was about 190 times bigger than small-sized corm. In addition, the highest number (466. 36 corms. m-2) and weight (936. 55 g. m-2) of daughter corms were belonged to mother-corm size between 8. 1 to 12 g. These results justify bearing the cost of providing big corms (over 4 g) in saffron cultivation. Evaluating the main effect of nutrition factor revealed no significant impact on most studied traits. Comparing the slope of linear regression between dried stigma weight and corm size showed that the highest yield increasing happened in Omic treatment (12. 91 mg in exchange for one unit of mother corm weight increasing). These results clearly showed that despite significant effect of mother corm size on yield of saffron, using organic fertilizers has no significant effect on these traits in the first year. However, using organic fertilizers might have positive effects in the next coming years that needs to be studied.

Nowadays, in response to the consequences of chemical herbicide application and gradual reduction of farm crops, suitable biological methods have been identified to control the weeds. In this respect allelopathic can be show useful potential for biological to control of weeds. So in order to evaluate the allelopathic effects of saffron (Crocus sativus L. ) corm and leaves aqueous concentrations on germination characteristics and preliminary growth of tow weed species including rye (Secale cereale L. ) and oat (Avena ludoviciana L. ), a factorial layout was conducted based on a completely randomized design with three replications at Seed Science laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand during 2015. Treatments included saffron tissues at 2 levels (such as leaves and corms) and water extract concentrations at five levels (including 0, 0. 5, 1, 1. 5 and 2 percent). Studied traits were germination percentage, germination rate, radicle length, radicle fresh weight, radicle dried weight and mean germination time. Results showed that the tissues and aqueous concentrations of saffron had significant effects on all evaluated traits in two weeds. The lowest seed germination percentage of rye and oat were observed at 2% concentrations of corm and leaves extracts (up to 74. 6% and 66. 6% reduction compared to control, respectively). Also, the germination rate of oat decreased (up to 50% compared to control) with 2% concentration of extract but the rate of germination on rye was not significantly affected by extract concentrations. Based on orthogonal comparison tests, the allelopathic inhibition of leaves on rye and oat were higher than other tissue.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L. ) is a perennial stemless herb of the Iridaceae family. It is a triploid plant and sterile geophyte that propagated by replacement corms. It has long been known that the relative levels of plant hormones and growth regulators control dormancy, germination and emergence. In order to evaluate the effect of different chemical regulators and their concentrations on flower and stigma yield of saffron in without soil conditions (hydroponic conditions), an experiment was conducted as factorial layout based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at the Agricultural Complex of Fadak during 2014. Three chemical regulators at four concentrations such as Gibberellic acid (GA3), (0, 5, 20 and 40 mg. l-1), Chlorocholine chloride (CCC) (0, 100, 200 and 300 mg. l-1) and Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) (0, 100, 200 and 300 mg. l-1) were considered as treatments. Studied traits were fresh weight of flower, stigma length, fresh weight of stigma, dry weight of stigma and flower number in October and December (as the first and second harvests, respectively). The results showed that the effect of concentration was significant (p≤ 0. 01) on flower yield indices at the first harvest. Flower yield indices were significantly affected by growth regulators and concentrations at the second harvest (p≤ 0. 05). By increasing concentration of growth regulators declined fresh weight of flower, flower number, stigma length, fresh weight of stigma and dry weight of stigma. The highest stigma length and flower number were observed for CCC with 0. 34 cm and 3. 41, respectively. It is concluded that plant hormones have considerable role in dormancy prolongation and flower yield indices of saffron.

Bilateral trade or mutual trading or two-way business is a business that is between two countries and usually under government negotiations. Bilateral trade is generally arranged for political reasons or due to problems that arise in payments. Foreign trade in agricultural products plays an important role in expanding the export and import of various countries due to its high and stable value. Among the agricultural products, saffron is one of the most important export commodities of agriculture, which contributes greatly to the creation of agricultural value added. To maintain Iran's position as the largest producer and exporter of saffron in world markets and to further develop the export of this valuable product, recognizing and determining the importance of the factors affecting it can be an important step in this direction. Therefore, the present study seeks to assess the ranking of socioeconomic variables affecting the bilateral trade of saffron in Iran and its trading partners during the period of 2007-2016. So aiming for the purpose gravity of pattern was used. Variables of import prices per g, export prices per g, volumes of inputs, export volumes, gross domestic product (GDP), real exchange rate, world trade index, population, distance, common language and export insurance of the factors affecting the bilateral trade of saffron in Iran. The results of the gravity model showed that GDP variable increase income and economic power of the country and this is for the importing country cause increases imports from the exporting country. Also, the results showed that variables of import volume, transport cost and distance had a negative impact on bilateral trade. Common language variables and export insurance statistically it is meaningless and the positive two variables indicate their direct relationship with bilateral trade. It is suggested due to the important role of distance in trade, mostly with trading countries that are less distant.

In order to identify and determine the frequency and density of weeds in saffron fields of Ghayenat, 15 fields were randomly selected based on cultivation area during 2014-2015. In each field, weeds were separately counted by species. Weed density was estimated by using a 0. 25 m2 frame. Fields with 1000-4000 m2 in extent were visited and samplings were carried out. The movement in these fields was done in the shape of “ W” . Sampling time was determined to be between March to Febuary and through using relations and formulas, frequency of species, species uniformity, average compression and species dominance were estimated and determined. The results showed that 84 weed species which belonged to the Asteraceae, Poaceae, Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Polygonaceae, Chenopdiaceae and Malvaceae families had the highest frequency, respectively. The most important weeds according to the dominance index were brome chess (Bromus danthoniae), mouse barley (Hordeum murinum), bromus (Bromus scoparius), downy brome (Bromus tectorum), barley (Hordeum vulgare), from grasses and Russian knapweed (Acroptilon repens), (Cirsium arvense), pagoda (Sophora alepecurides) and turnsole (Heliotropium europaeum) from broad leaves. Annual weeds had the greatest species diversity (45 species), biennial weeds had the lowest species diversity (4 species), and the perennial were between the two groups (35 species). Eighty eight percent of weeds were broadleaf, and 12 percent were narrow leaf weeds. Therefore it is recommended that we use ecological management for weed control in saffron farms which leads to the stability and sustainability of the production as well as to reduce consumption of substances and chemical pesticides.

One of the key issues in the world economy is the non-oil export of agricultural products. Due to the favorable climatic conditions, Iran has a special place in the cultivation of agricultural products, among which saffron and barberry have a special place, so that Iran is known as the largest producer of saffron and barberry of the world. But in the field of their export of the products there are challenges. In this research, we investigated the factors influencing the export of saffron and barberry with regard to the elements of the mixed market from the point of view of experts, experts and exporters. In this type of research, the descriptive-applied research is concerned with the relationship between the independent variables of product characteristics, quality, packaging, price, distribution channels, advertising promotions with the dependent variable of export. A questionnaire has been distributed and distributed among experts, experts and exporters. The sample was 120 experts. Data were analyzed by SPSS software. Among the results, barriers were distribution channels improper packaging of undesirable lack of publicity abroad and the introduction of saffron and barberry to the target market.

The results show that saffron yield in Iran have decreased up to 44% during 1971-2017 which one of its reasons is unsustainable management of the cultivation. Therefore, the present study aimed at identifying sustainable and unsustainable agricultural practices in saffron cultivation in Gonabad township, enhancing the management and providing guidelines on future studies in the field of assessing sustainability status of saffron production. To achieve the objectives, a questionnaire was distributed among 101 experienced saffron farmers in Gonabad. After identifying important practices, the impact of these activities on the ecosystem sustainability was investigated. Afterwards, considering the necessity of avoiding unsustainable farming activities, the importance coefficient of these activities was calculated based on experts’ opinions (Delphi method) and Pairwise Comparison Matrix. Based on the results, five farming operations including manure application, agronomic diversity provided by intercropping and multi-cropping systems, use of micronutrient solutions and fertilizers, application of minimum tillage and organic fertilizers were categorized as sustainable operations. Also, seven activities including high use of chemical fertilizers, high-density planting, herbicides and chemical pesticides, flood irrigation, grazing on farms, human urine and feces and burning saffron residuals were categorized as unsustainable farming activities. From the viewpoint of the experts, the use of chemical fertilizers and high-density planting are recognized as the most unsustainable farming activities in saffron cultivation and the rest are in the next priorities. Therefore, undertaking appropriate policies in order to boost farmers’ attitudes towards sustainable agricultural practices and increasing the awareness of farmers about the negative and long-term effects of unsustainable farming practices, especially high use of chemical fertilizers and high-density of corm in saffron cultivation are essential to provide sustainability in the crop cultivation.

Environmental factors such as plant nutrition and available moisture content affect the quantity and quality of plants compounds, including phenolic compounds such as flavonoids, tannins and anthocyanins contents. Saffron is one of the indigenous medicinal plants of Iran, whose history of using it is back to the ancient times. The present study was carried out to investigate the quantitative and qualitative properties of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of saffron tussock extract under the influence of irrigation regimes based on field capacity (FC), 1/2FC, 1/3FC and 2/3FC. At the first, saffron corms were cultivated based on a completely randomized design and then phytochemical contents were measured. Afterwards the total phenolic and flavonoid compounds were measured by spectrophotometry method. Finally, the antioxidant activity of the extract at different concentrations was measured using 2, 2 diphenyl-1-picriyl-hydrazil (DPPH) radical inhibitory activity. The results of the phytochemical test confirmed the presence of secondary compounds such as tannin, anthocyanin and flavonoids, and the absence of alkaloids in the saffron tussock extract. Also, the flavonoid content of the irrigated sample with 50% FC was higher than the other treatments. The sample that irrigated to the extent of FC level and sample was irrigated to the extent of 1/3FC level showed the highest and lowest amount of phenolic compounds, respectively and sample was irrigated to the extent of FC showed the most antioxidant properties.

In Iran, saffron is important in many aspects such as high water productivity, low inputs agricultural system, employment and income generation of villages also in terms of developing non-oil exports. In order to investigation of climatic factors in AzadshahrTownship (Golestan province) for development of saffron cropping, spatial analysis of Geographic Information System (GIS) was used. At first, thematic maps of climatic variables included annual rainfall, rainfall of reproductive and growth periods, annual average temperature, maximum temperature of reproductive and growth periods, minimum temperature of reproductive, growth and minimum dormancy periods, sunshine hours, relative humidity and frost daysnumber were provided. In this research, climatic data from 137 synoptic, climatology and rain-gauge stations were used. For estimation of these variables, geostatistical and classic interpolation methods included Kriging, Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and Local Polynomial Interpolation (LPI) techniques were used and the best method was selected according to RMSE in ArcGIS media. The results showed that total boundary was classified based on annual rainfall in three classes included high suitable, suitable, and semi-suitable zones for saffron planting. Also, in the viewpoint of rainfall in reproductive phase about 74. 48% of agricultural lands in central and north of this township was located in non-suitable zone. But, some variables such as rainfall of growth period, annual average temperature, maximum temperature of reproductive period, minimum temperature of reproductive period, minimum temperature of growth period, minimum temperature of dormancy, sunshine hours and frost daysnumber had not the limitation for development of saffron cropping. Assessment of obtained results by field survey from current saffron fields were determined that the all sampling points located in high suitable and suitable zones of climatic maps. In general, development of saffron cultivation according toclimatic variablesis possible in south area of AzadshahrTownship.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L. ) is one of the native and valuable plants of Iran that proper use of nutrients is particularly important in its development and production. Since saffron is reproduced by corm, so always been considered production of replacement corms through appropriate nutrition. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine macro nutrients concentrations (such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K)) in corm of saffron in perennial farms in South Khorasan during 2015. The information of two regions (including Qaen and Nehbandan) were collected from 3, 5 and 7-year-old, then from each farm mentioned above, three farms and three samples as replicates were randomly selected. The concentrations of macronutrients in corm were analyzed based on standard laboratory methods. Results revealed that concentrations of N, P and K in corm were significantly affected by region and field age (P≤ 0. 01). The interaction between region and field age was not significant on nitrogen concentration, but the concentrations of phosphorus and potassium in corm were affected. Also, corm had the highest nitrogen concentration in the fields of 3-year-old in Qaen. Corm nitrogen concentration of 7-year-old significantly reduced compared to 3-year-old farms. P and K concentrations significantly increased in corm of 5 and 7-year old farms in Qaen compared to the fields of 5-year-old. Farms of 5-year-old in Qaen had highest yield of dry matter (7. 23 kg. ha-1) due to high levels of nutrients such as P, K and N. Generally, corm selection with optimum weight for sowing and proper use of nutrients, especially N, P and K, as well as their correct balance in soil, can be effective in yield increment and stability of soil fertility.

Drought is a natural disaster and repeatable that influencing all climates, but the frequency of its occurrence is more in arid and semi-arid regions such as Iran. Due to water scarcity and the non-structural damages caused by drought, a system of continuous surveillance on the phenomenon, drought monitoring, is inevitable. Drought indices are used for monitoring and decreasing the effects of drought. Among the indicators can be mention to Reconnaissance Drought Index (RDI). Therefore, due to dry weather conditions in South Khorasan province and its undeniable role in the production of saffron, the relationship between saffron yield and RDI was studied in four prone sites for production and cultivation of saffron. In this regard, RDI of three months in the period 1989-2014 (25 years) calculated in synoptic stations of Birjand, Qaen, Ferdows and Nehbandan and then comparing with the yield, regression equation between drought index of each month and yield was determined. Regression analysis and the getting results, in addition to confirming the existence of the relationship between the RDI of saffron yield confirmed this point that the drought index of February, March and April months in Birjand and Qaen; February in Ferdows and months of January, February, March in Nehbandan were effective on saffron yield. The extreme drought occurred in Birjand and Qaen in years 2000-2001, 25 years under study, and in Ferdows and Nehbandan in the years 1999-2000, so that moderate drought (normal) has the most continuity in all the studied stations and its occurrence is Imminent each three years once.