JOURNAL OF LITERARY CRITICISM AND RHETORIC
Year:2016 | Volume:4 | Issue:2|Papers Count:13

To understand the concepts of Holy Qur' an and finding the inner meanings of its verses, the words "Reality" and "Trope" have been entered the field of Qur' anic literature acting against each other from at least the second Hijri century. Trope was firstly defined by Aristotle, but this term has been implied three meanings in Islam world, from 3rd up to 5th Hijri centuries: it was firstly "the way of expressing the meaning of verses and understanding their implications." Then, it was used with a more general meaning, including the ways of speech, and finally as a common term of rhetoric which stood against the rhetoric term of Reality, "a word or expression used in a figurative sense, or; a word, phrase, or image used in a new and different way in order to create an artistic effect". Since the introduction of the third meaning, some commentators denied trope totally, and some of them denied it in relation with divine attributes or in God's words. The Salafists and apparentists denied trope in Qur' an. Ibn – Taymiyyah was one of their famous figures who rejected the discussion of "Reality and Trope" absolutely, and believed that all the words of Allah and the prophet are real. In return, most scholars of rhetoric, methodology and interpretation believe, on the basis of rational reasons, that the denial of trope in Qur' an and language is the result of ignorance and obstinacy with no scientific foundation.

Majd Khafi's Rowzat al-Khald is a suitable instance of the texts have benefited Qur' anic verses and the depth of this literal and spiritual influence is quite apparent in them. The main purpose of present essay is to explore the variety of intertextual relations between the above mentioned book and Holy Qur' an as well as different implications of Qur' anic verses. To achieve this, Rowzat al-Khald was analyzed interms of Gérard Genette’s theory of intertextuality. The results show that different ranges of Qur' anic discourses have been reflected in this work, what confirms intertextual relations. Accordingly, Quranic quotations usage has caused the book being interested by allusion, citation, premonitory and exhortative functions. The functions of integrating Qur' an, without citing the references in Rowzat al-Khald, include: the continuity of dialogues narration as well as creating similes and rhythm enhancement. Further, ironies, brevities and allusions are some of the most important forms of implied intertextuality are being frequently seen in Rowzat al-Khald. So understanding the figurative, virtual language of this work is partly dependent on the perception of Qur' anic verses used in it.

Defamiliarization, the artistic technique of presenting to audiences common things in an unfamiliar or strange way in order to enhance perception of the familiar, is the main function of artistic literature. Paradox is one of its techniques. Paradox is used either syntactically or semantically. Ibn al-Farid was a mystic Sufi poet gifted by mystical perceptions in addition to his poetic talents. Although he enjoyed a high quality interpretation capability, he found paradoxical techniques the best and the closest mystical experiences. Defining paradoxical techniques and showing their literary and rhetoric values, the authors in present study, try to introduce paradoxicals analytically in Ibn al-Farid's Ode (the Great Ta' iyyah).

Searching the reasons for the superiority of one text over another with the same theme and the same subject has long been a vital question up on the minds of literary critics. Dealing with these types of texts, this critical question has always been outstanding in the mind of serious literary critics that why the narration of one author is more cohesive than the other's. So analyzing the structures and the components of the more influential narrations, and comparing their intellectual foundation to the similar narrations can probably offer the answer to the question and, undoubtedly, a very beneficial method in literary studies. The logical structures of better narrations are definitely one of the main reasons of their superiority. The authors, in present essay, have analyzed the superiority of the allegory of Elephant in Masnavi- Ma'anavi over the same allegory inḤadiqat al-Ḥaqiqa and have shown, eliciting the rhetorical methods of each work, that Masnavi is indeed more coherent in comparison with Ḥaqiqa in every respect.

This essay is to study the rhetoric and stylistic features of Hafiz's Rubaiyat. Although this literary form has not a major contribution in divan of Hafiz in comparison to his lyrics, but it deserves to get more attention, because this famous poet has blown part of his spirit and inner feelings into its existence. Assuming the validity of this attribution, it has been tried to analyze Hafiz's Rubaiyat from several perspectives such as content analysis, imaging, literary industries, and aesthetics to get a criteria making a scientific judgement. So, this essay has been divided and shown into three intellectual, literary and aesthetic categories. This study makes it clear that a great and famous poet like Hafiz wasn' t successful, as it should be, in this literary genre (Rubaiyat), despite his unique capability and dominance on lyric as a literary form; the semantic mismatch of hemistiches, failure of symbols, and lack of logical reasoning behind these statements can be considered as some reasons.

Doing researches on the arts of rhetoric and oratory which relates to meaning hunting and using it through speech structure has earned, from the ancient periods, the attention of critics and scholars in all over the world, and paying attention to coherent speeches is what can be traced in ancient Iran before the arrival of Islam. Instructive brevities, phrases full of similes and metaphors, eloquent and expressive sentences in ancient Iranian speech are so that has provoked the admiration of someone like al-Jahiz. As one of the pioneers of eloquent speech, he has admired Iranians for their eloquent speaking and introduced Iranian book Carvand as one of the best rhetoric sources. There is a very valuable treasure of speeches of Iranian prominent figures in Arabic sources which is full of rhetoric and literary arts in addition to their instructive meanings and makes every reader fascinated. Relying on some historical and literary instances from Arabic sources, some selected rhetoric speeches of ancient Iranians have been, in present essay, analyzed to show a small part of Iranian dynamic rhetoric during this period of history.

A poem may have different features such as meter, intonation, rhyme and imageries. Each of these features, in a way, represents the identity of poem. These features, the differences and the similarities of prosodic system and intonation of poetry in Russian and Persian languages have been paid attention in present essay. Since such features of Russian poetry have not yet studied in our country, as should it be, this research has been accomplished in order to get more familiarity with the language of poetry. Understanding the differences between the prosodic systems of different languages is the other main purpose of present essay. The study has been done through comparative method. Initially a brief definition of prosodic system is offered and then the situation of poetic meters are compared each other in both languages. The results show that: "understanding the meter in a poem composed in a foreign language can contribute a deeper understanding and a better translation of it." It should also be made clear that the meter in a poem, in any language, has a close relationship with the phonetic features and structure of that language.

It is almost about four decades that narratology has been considered as an independent science in west and has been used in the literary studies. One of the prominent theorists of narratology is Gérard Genette who has offered, as many say, the best theories in this regard. The Genette's accurate and consistent opinions in the field of narratology, especially in discussions of point of view, has such capacity that one can, with the help of his pattern, analyze different literally texts and open new perspectives to them. Using the pattern of narratology of this prominent critic, in present essay, we are going to consider point of view as an approach in Nizami's "khosrow and Shirin", and it has been compared Amir Khosrow Dehlawi's "Shirin and Khosrow" who many believe him as the greatest critic of Nizami to show the quality of Nizami's work.

Eric Bern, the prominent psychologist divides human personality in to three basic structural aspects, namely Parent, Adult, and Child in his transactional analysis. He believes when each aspect plays its own role on a just time, in compliance with the balance and interaction, one's mental health would be shown and a noble healthy man can, in this situation, provide proportion with the help of reasoning and deduction (Adult) between his instinct (Child) and education and training (Parent). Balance disruption of clues between child and parent is a sign of imbalance in the psyche and human behavior; if the adult creates balance between the child and the parent, the image of Perfect Human will be appeared, but if the rough, arrogant and caviler parent dominates the child the one will use the social masks and will seek others' love narcissistically and incompetently and will follow the profit and loss worldly and otherworldly. Masnavi Ma' navi contains several human groups, from every spectrum of behavior and belief that their different psychological and behavioral features have been reflected and scrutinized. So the researcher can accomplish a transactional analysis on heroes of his stories psychoanalytically. The authors, in present essay, analyze the aspects of "Parent" and "Adult" in Masnavi's characters and make their clues highlighted in Mowlavi's description of his characters' behavior.

Intertextuality is one of the most important theories in comparative literature, because it deals with effectiveness of literature, just like comparative literature. The theorists believe that any text is the result of absorption and transformation of another text. The Maqama technique has had a great impact on European literature in terms of fiction writing and has technically inspired Picaresque Narratives through its realistic nature. However some critics have rejected this kind of impact and inspiration. Through an analytic-descriptive method, based on library and documentaries, the authors of present essay have comparatively and intertextually studied Picaresque Narratives using some instances. The study shows that the structure superimposes of these two literary genres, in two different cultures and inevitably in two different languages stands on different positions. Their common prepositions imply their certainty of intertextuality and being informed and confirm the Maqamat's effectiveness on Picaresque Narratives.