Studies in Learning and Instruction
Year:2019 | Volume:10 | Issue:2 ( 75-2)|Papers Count:12

Introduction In the present era, science is the most important pillar of the development of societies; this can be considered as one of the developmental indicators in different societies. From different fields of science, education is an important part of any person's life because its quantity and quality play an important role in the future of a society. One of the reasons for the growth of societies in the future will be students' motivation. Motivation is a cognitive factor that affects the performance and behavior of individuals; it affects the type of personal activities individuals choose, their level of involvement in the activity, the amount of insistence on their performance, and the result of the actions (Paskova, 2007). One of the dimensions of motivation for students is academic motivation. Aripathamanil (2011) defines the academic motivation as an internal process that stimulates activities and continues with the goal of obtaining certain academic achievements. In fact, educational motivation is an infrastructure for the achievement of educational goals and, consequently, the development of societies; one of the issues that has affected many of the educational systems of the countries of the world, especially the developing countries, is the reduction of motivation in the field of education, which has incurred a great deal of scientific, economic, and cultural harm and losses to families and governments every year and causes many students to suffer from physical and mental harm greatly (Molavi et al., 2007). Therefore, to prevent the incurred harm and damages, the researchers of the educational systems have always been concerned about how to motivate the learners "to learn effectively and dynamically" and to be prepared for "behavior change" that identifies the factors affecting the amount of academic motivation (Shoarinezhad, 1387). The findings of the research showed that individual, personality, family, school and social variables are related to this structure. In general, the factors influencing motivation can be placed in two categories: one is the individuals' factors and the other is the environmental factors that comprise the community, the family, and the school. The researches that show the relationship among environmental factors are referred to herein as social support (family, friends, and others) and the researches that address the individual factors are referred to as self-efficacy (Sharifi, 1393). Social support was first defined by Cobb as the extent of affection, attention, and assistance one receives from his family members, friends and others, plus the understanding of the availability of those who are felt to care about him (Cobb, 1976); as mentioned, self-efficacy is another determinant related to individual academic motivation, which was first introduced by Albert Bandura in the form of the social cognitive theory (Baswell, 2010). Bandura (1997) defined self-efficacy as the judgment of individuals about their ability to organize and implement certain behaviors in order to achieve the desired goals. The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between social support and academic motivation, in addition to testing the mediating role of self efficacy beliefs. The study is directed by the following hypothesis: Self-efficacy beliefs have a mediating role between social support and academic motivation of students in Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman. Research Questions Considering the conducted researches and the contradictions that have been seen in the results of them in relation to academic motivation, the questions that pose some problems in mind in this research are the following questions. What is the role of individual or social factors in academic motivation? Do individual factors such as selfefficacy and social factors such as social support have a direct or indirect impact on academic motivation? What is the effect of each of these factors on the creation of academic motivation in individuals? Method The participants were 380 Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman college students who were recruited, by using multistage cluster random sampling method, and within each cluster the simple random method. The research tools were the questionnaires of Phillips’ and colleagues’ social support (1986), Harter's academic motivation (1981), and Sherer’ s and colleagues’ self-efficacy beliefs (1982). Results The results of the path analysis according to the main model of research indicate that social support does not directly correlate with academic motivation, but it, indirectly, through self-efficacy beliefs as a mediate variable, affects academic motivation and from the dimensions of social support (Family support, friends' support and others' support), only two dimensions of family support and the support of others showed a positive and significant relationship with self-efficacy beliefs and the academic motivation (internal motivation and exogenous motivation) of the students; and the support of friends did not show a meaningful relationship with the self-efficacy and educational motivation beliefs of the students. Discussion Therefore, the hypothesis of the research, which states self-efficacy believes in the relationship between the social support and academic motivation play the role of mediation, was verified. The results of the research showed that there is no direct relationship between the components of social support (family support, the support of friends, and the support of others) and the educational motivation (internal and external), but they indirectly and through the mediate variable of self-efficacy beliefs implement their effects. This finding is in line with the results of the researches by Sayed Salehi and Younesi (1394), Tamanai Far and Mansuri Nik (1393), which showed the indirect effect of social support on academic motivation. Among the dimensions of the social support, the family support and the others' support had a positive and direct effect on students' self-efficacy beliefs. This finding was supported by the findings of Dehghanizadeh and Soleimani Khoshab (1394), Tamanaifar, Lith and Mansuri Nik (1392), Ling-Ling, Kay and Sally (2014), and Lee (2014). In the next stage, self-efficacy beliefs had a positive and direct effect on the academic motivation (internal and external motivation) of the students. This part of the research is supported by the result of the researches by Seyed Salehi and Younesi (1394) and McGonon et al. (2014), which suggests that self-efficacy is directly related to academic motivation. The social support from the family increased students' self-efficacy through providing effective models, substitution experiences, enhanced positive interpretations, and the information support. Subsequently, by enhancing their self-efficacy, self-esteem and confidence and relying on their abilities, their educational motivation increased indirectly.

Introduction Boredom is one of the achievement related emotions which is frequently experienced by students in academic contexts (Daschmann, Goetz & Stupnisky, 2011; Nett, Goetz & Hall, 2011) and may concern achievement activities, such as class attendance, study, and task or homework completion (Pekrun et al, 2004). It is a negative and deactivating emotion (Vogel-Walcutt, Fiorella, Carper & Schatz, 2012), involving an unpleasant feeling (affective), low-arousal (physiological), a desire to leave the boring situation (motivational), and a perception of slowness in time (cognitive) (Pekrun, 2006). Socialcognitive theorists assume that boredom negatively affect motivation, activating cognitive resources, self-regulation and achievement outcomes (Pekrun, Goetz, Daniels, and Stupnisky, Perry, 2010). Empirical evidence has revealed that this achievement emotion has detrimental effects on the students’ engagement in class and on their learning (Mann and Robinson, 2009; Tze, Klassen & Daniels, 2014), and is associated with Low academic performance (Pekrun and etal, 2010), school dropout (Wegner, Flisher, Chikobvu, Lombard, & King, 2008) and adolescence delinquency (Newberry & Duncan, 2001). Considering negative effects of boredom, educational scholars are studying and identifying antecedents of academic boredom (Daniels, Tze, and Goetz, 2015). Overall, researchers have pointed to three different categories of causes of boredom, including environment, person, and person-environment fit (Nett, Goetz & Daniels, 2010; Goetz and Hall, 2014). According to Robinson (1975), learning environment is an immediate and important environmental element for the student's academic boredom. Numerous studies have focused on the role of different aspects of the learning environment in determining the boredom experiences of learners (see Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, and Perry, 2002; Bartsch & Cobern, 2003; Fallis & Optotow, 2003; Glaser-Zikuda & Fub, 2008). Furthermore, the subjective value of academic activities has been known as a main personal cause of boredom (Pekrun and etal, 2010). Subjective value is a cognitive appraisal, which includes perceiving the importance of achievement-related tasks, activities and outcomes. Social cognitive theorists hold that cognitive appraisals have a mediational role in the relationship between environmental factors and achievement emotions. On such a basis and using a causal model, this study was aimed to investigate the role of learning environment elements and subjective value dimensions in determining the students' academic boredom. Hypotheses 1. Learning environment dimensions can predict the students' academic boredom. 2. Learning environment dimensions can predict the components of subjective task value. 3. Components of subjective task value mediate in the relationship between learning environment dimensions and academic boredom. Methods A correlational research design was used to test the research hypotheses. Participants were 718 high school students (380 females and 338 males) who were selected from Shiraz high schools via multi stage cluster sampling method. The data was collected, administering three questionnaires including What Is Happening In this Class? (WIHIC), Task Value scale, and Learning and class-related Boredom Scales. The proposed Model was tested using structural equation modeling in AMOS software. Results The results showed that task orientation as a dimension of perceived learning environment could directly and positively predict attainment, and the intrinsic and utility dimensions of task value. Teacher support and involvement, as the other dimensions of the learning environment were positive predictors of the intrinsic and utility dimensions of task value. Student cohesiveness positively predicted attainment value and negatively predicted intrinsic value. Moreover, utility was found to have a direct positive effect on attainment value. Examining the indirect effects revealed that intrinsic value can mediate the relationship of student cohesiveness, task orientation, investigation, and teacher support as the elements of the learning environment with academic boredom. The proposed model's fitness to observations was desirable. Discussion and Conclusion The present study showed that some environmental factors can explain academic boredom with the mediating role of interest value. This entails a confirmation for the assumptions of Pekrun's theory on achievement emotions (2006). On the other hand, adopting a multidimensional approach to value construct as the most important cognitive factor associated with boredom, lead to a new and different finding that revealed new angles for the knowledge of academic boredom. Such a new approach can be considered in the process of reducing the student's boredom. Additionally, the simultaneous examination of several environmental factors led to the clarification of the most influential components of classroom. That is, the role of task orientation, teacher support and research as the most important inhibitors of academic boredom can be considered, in terms of planning and taking action to increase interest value and reduce academic boredom. Particularly, the obvious contribution of the teacher in these three factors is clear and promising. Therefore, it is suggested for the teachers to set up their class schedules based on task orientation and research elements of the learning environment if they want to improve the beliefs of task value and reduce academic boredom in their students. It is also recommended that teachers support students and more effectively meet their individual needs. The negative role of student cohesiveness in decreasing the amount of interest value and increasing academic boredom clarifies the both the positive and negative effects of peers. So, in order to prevent academic boredom and improve the attainment of schooling values, it is recommended for the educational planners and practitioners to form classrooms with a standard number of members. In this way, factors affecting the students' inattention and uninterest are reduced and as a result, their interest in the lesson is not damaged and they don't get bored. In addition, teachers through student grouping can get benefit from student cohesiveness in meeting class goals and in enhancing the different aspects of value of schooling. It should be noted that these findings are limited to the students of the tenth and eleventh grades of Science and Mathematics. Therefore, generalization of the findings to other situations and other students must be made with caution. Accordingly, it is recommended that other researchers examine the hypothesized model of this study with other groups of students.

Introduction Students' academic achievement is considered a determining factor in assessing the quality of educational systems. Evidently, realization of this will not be possible without the full engagement of learners in academic activities. Recently, researchers have used the term ‘ engagement’ to refer to ‘ the quality of effort students themselves devote to educationally purposeful activities that contribute directly to desired outcomes’ (Hu & Kuh, 2002, p. 555). Academic engagement is a multi-dimensional structure: behavioral engagement, agentic engagement, cognitive engagement, and emotional engagement. The behavioral scale was designed to tap teachers’ perceptions of students’ effort, attention, and persistence during the initiation and execution of learning activities (Furrer & Skinner, 2007). Reeve and Tseng (2011, p. 1) initially proposed the concept of agentic engagement. They defined it as “ students’ constructive contribution into the flow of the instruction they receive” . Agentic engagement is similar to the other two aspects of engagement, as it is similarly a constructive student-initiated pathway to academic progress; but it is also meaningfully different. Conceptually, agentic engagement is a uniquely proactive and transactional type of engagement. Cognitive strategies involve the use of rehearsal, elaboration, and organizational strategies to increase encoding, retention, and comprehension of classroom materials (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986). Emotional engagement involves interest, boredom, happiness, anxiety, and other affective states, any of which could affect learners’ involvement in learning. Achievement goal theory has become one of the dominant frameworks for the conceptualization of achievement motivation in general, and motivation in school in particular (Elliot, 1999; Pintrich, 1994). Academic engagement is under the influence of several factors such as achievement goal, academic motivation and achievement emotions. Achievement goal theory was formulated out of several research programs that converged on the idea that students construe meanings for achievement situations, and that these meanings involve a comprehensive purpose for engagement in action, namely, achievement goal orientations (Maehr, 1984; Molden & Dweck, 2000). Moreover, academic motivation refers to the cause of behaviors that are in some way related to academic functioning and success, such as how much effort students put forth, how effectively they regulate their work, which endeavors they choose to pursue, and how persistent they are when faced with obstacles (Schunk et al. 2008). Atkinson and his colleagues (1957) formed the concept that achievement motivation that stems from two separate needs. One is the motivation to achieve, which is related to one’ s desire to accomplish successful goals and the other is the motivation to avoid failure. In line with these studies, research is needed to investigate the relationship that achievement goals and academic motivation could have with academic engagement and the mediating role that achievement emotions could play in this regard. Hypothesis 1. The dimensions of achievement goal are directly related to academic engagement. 2. The dimensions of academic motivation are directly related to academic engagement. 3. The dimensions of achievement goals have an indirect effect on academic engagement through the positive and negative achievement emotions. 4. The dimensions of academic motivation have an indirect effect on academic engagement through the positive and negative achievement emotions. Method The statistical population of the study constituted the students of education and psychology, who engaged in the academic year 2016-2017 at Shiraz University. Participants were 315 college students (173 female and 142 male) in different fields and sections in the faculty of psychology and education at Shiraz University who were chosen through stratified random sampling. For measuring the variables, Academic Engagement Scale (Reeve and Tseng, 2011), achievement goals Questionnaire (Elliott and McGregor, 2001), Motivation Scale (Vallerand, 1989) and Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (Pekrun, 2005) were used. Fitness of the proposed model was examined through structural equation modeling (SEM), using AMOS-21 software package. Results Findings indicated that the proposed model fit the data properly. Better fit and more meaningful results were obtained by eliminating two insignificant paths. The results indicated that mastery-approach goals and performance-approach goals have significant positive effect on academic engagement. However, mastery-avoidance goals and performance-avoidance goals had no significant effect. On the other hand, intrinsic motivation was found to have a significant positive effect and extrinsic motivation had a significant negative impact on academic engagement, while amotivation had no significant effect. The results of the indirect relationship showed that achievement goals dimensions through negative emotions, and mastery-approach goals, mastery-avoidance goals and performance-approach goals through positive emotions have a significant indirect effect on academic engagement. Besides, the dimensions of academic motivation through positive emotions, intrinsic motivation and amotivation through negative emotions were found to have a significant indirect effect on academic engagement. Discussion and Conclusion Direct hypothesis examination indicated that: mastery goal approach could significantly predict Academic engagement, so that students with mastery goal approach had high academic engagement. Moreover, students with mastery goal approach focused on personal competence. Furthermore, such students enjoyed academic activities and welcomed challenging activities. Based on research findings, mastery-avoidance goal could not predict academic engagement. These students avoided defeat and error and left the tasks incomplete. Performance approach could also significantly predict academic engagement. These students were motivated by proving superiority over others and gaining favorable judgments about their progress. Similarly, intrinsic motivation could significantly and positively predict academic engagement. This might be because students with intrinsic motivation perform academic tasks spontaneously. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation could significantly and negatively predict academic engagement. These students fulfilled their academic tasks to obtain external rewards and reinforcements. Indirect hypothesis indicated that, positive academic motivation has a mediating role in the relationship that mastery goal approach, mastery-avoidance and performance approach have with academic engagement. Moreover, positive academic achievement has a mediating role in the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and academic engagement.

Introduction The high school years bring many new challenges and risks to adolescent students' social, emotional, and academic lives (Zee, Koomen, & Vander veen, 2013). Thus, during this critical period, adjustment to school is considered important for most students (Rattelr & Duchesne, 2014). School adjustment is an important indicator of how well adolescents have been able to cope with the challenges and expectations presented by school. In this study according to Sinha & Singh (1993), adjustment is comprised of three components: emotional adjustment, social adjustment, and academic adjustment, all being the skills that students need for success in school and in life. Indeed, schools are interpersonal settings in which relationships are shaped between the teacher and students. Teacher-student relationship provides the context through which students experience the school, and have the potential to positively impact student engagement (Cadima, Doumen, Vershuren, & Buyse, 2015). Researchers have noted that students' perception of teacher-student relationship may be an important factor related to the students' adjustment (Longobardi, Prino, Marengo, & Settani, 2016). Positive teacher-student interaction draws students into the process of engagement and promotes their desire to learn. Accordingly, students who are more engaged in school show better psychological adjustment to school (Wang & Peck, 2013). Consequently, the aim of this study was to investigate the mediating role of academic engagement in the relationship between teacher-student interaction and the students' adjustment. Research Questions The present study aimed at investigating the mediatory role of academic engagement in the relationship between teacher-student interaction and school adjustment. Therefore, this study attempted to answer the following questions:-Is it possible to predict students' adjustment based on teacher-student interaction?-Is it possible to predict students' academic engagement according to student-teacher interaction?-Can academic engagement play a role as a mediating variable in the relationship between teacher-student interaction and students' adjustment? Methods This research is a correlation study in which the relationships between research variables are studied using equation structural modeling. The statistical population included all first grade of secondary school students in Bushehr city who studied in the academic year of 2017-2018. The participants consisted of 603 high school students (329 girls and 274 boys) who were selected through random multi-stage cluster sampling technique. The research instruments included Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (Wubbles, Creton, Levy, & Hooymayers, 1993), an Academic Engagement Questionnaire (Reeve & Tseng, 2011), and Sinha-Singh's Inventory for School Students (Sinha & Singh, 1993), which the participants completed in their regular classes. The collected data was analyzed using SPSS and AMOS (version 24) statistical softwares. All research instruments using confirmatory factor analysis and Cronbach's alpha coefficient enjoyed appropriate validity and reliability indices. Results The results of structural equation modeling indicated that the model had good fit indices. As predicted, teacher-student interaction could positively and significantly predict academic engagement and adjustment to school. On the other hand, academic engagement could positively and significantly predict the students’ adjustment to school. In the other words, the academic engagement variable could play a mediating role in the relationship between teacher-student interaction and the students' adjustment to school. Moreover, the indirect effect of teacher-student interaction on students’ adjustment to school through the mediation of academic engagement using Bootstrap test was statistically significant. Discussion and Conclusion In general, the research findings indicated that teacher-student interaction and academic engagement play a determining role in predicting the students' school adjustment. Consistent with the previous research findings, on one hand teacher-student interaction had strong impact on the students' academic engagement (Reyes, Brackett, Rivers, White, & Salovey, 2012), and on another hand this interaction had direct and indirect effects on the students' adjustment to schools (Longobardi, et al., 2016). The findings are also in line with the previous studies showing a link between higher student engagement and higher school adjustment (Skinner & Pitzer, 2012). This study supports the importance of student-teacher interaction as a protective factor during the students' transition to high school, which is essential to education because of its link to student engagement and schools' social, behavioral, and academic adjustment. Therefore teachers, counselors, and authorities of education are recommended to focus their efforts to promote their relationship with students in order to engage them in school activities and to reach a better school adjustment.

Introduction Evaluation plays a vital role in instruction. Assessment and evaluation are fundamental components of teaching and learning. Assessment is the process of collecting and documenting information on individual student learning, while evaluation is the process of analyzing, reflecting, summarizing and making decisions based on this information. The purpose of assessment is to inform teaching and improve learning. Hence, assessment of learning and assessment for learning are integral parts of the teaching and learning process. They are also essential for measuring the extent of student learning (evaluation of learning). Evaluation should be designed in ways that promote student learning, whether learning the subject or professional domain or competencies, literacies and skills at a subject or broader level. Integrated evaluation believes that attention to the methods of evaluation and feedback, and the use of self-evaluation and peer-evaluation, coupled with the tenets, are fundamental to student learning. Transforming evaluation is a process that requires the involvement of a wide range of stakeholders in a cycle of review, planning, and action. Doing so has implications for the infrastructure of the institution, for the dialogue required between the staff and students about evaluation, and for curriculum review and development. Transforming evaluation can have a positive impact upon student learning and student satisfaction as well as in promoting greater confidence in academic standard. Conceptualization of integrated evaluation has been the concern of policymakers in the Iranian educational system. The same is true of striking a balance between formative and summative assessments at the module and program level, with formative assessment thoroughly integrated within learning and teaching. The aim of the research The purpose of this study was to design and explore the components of the integrated evaluation framework for the academic achievement of secondary schoolers in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Research question 1. What is the appropriate framework for evaluating academic achievement? Methodology The current investigation could be considered a multiple qualitative case study. The16 participants in this study were selected from the university faculty members and some experts in charge of measurement and academic achievement evaluation centers of Fars province from 4 districts of educational offices. The purposeful sampling and criteria method was used to choose the participants. The qualitative data was analyzed through thematic analysis (basic, organizational and wide spreading meaning). The analytical approach used to explore the framework components was on the basis of Recontextualization approach (Morris, 1994). Results Data in the study was classified into 22 basic themes and 8 organizing themes, with the latter including the purpose of evaluation, weighting the qualitative and quantitative evaluation, methods of data collection, feedback, stake-holders in the evaluation process, teaching, infrastructural requirements, and validity of the results of the integrated evaluation. The triangulation techniques used in the study corroborated the validity of the framework. The findings of the current study will help the country's education system planners to create a new education program for curriculum evaluation. Conclusion The results of the study corroborated the validity and reliability of the proposed framework for the integrated assessment of academic achievement. Therefore, it is possible now to introduce the proposed framework with relative confidence as an efficient and reliable framework for the integrated assessment of academic achievement. The framework can explain the subject in different aspects of the integrated assessment of academic achievement. Accordingly, it can be claimed that the study has succeeded in developing and introducing a framework for the integrated assessment of academic achievement. As a reliable conceptual framework, it can serve as the basis of evaluation and can be used for further designs and actions related to the integrated assessment of academic achievement. The goal of this study is attainment of the framework of higher education curriculum based on life-long education approach. This study is qualitative and its method is qualitative collective case study. Analytical approach in codification of the framework is on the basis of restructuring (reconstruction) approach. Potential participants of the study included eight faculty members of academic groups of humanities, applied science, agriculture and animal husbandry, technical and engineering, and art and architecture in Shiraz University that at least once as a member of university curriculum council have participated in this council and five other individuals, were curriculum specialists (curriculum experts) who were selected by judgment sampling method in type of “ criterion” . In order to analyze the qualitative data, content analysis method (basis, organizer and meaning of learner) using N-Vivo software was applied. The results of study are indicative of existence of 119 base contents, 9 first-level organizer contents according to nine elements of curriculum of Klein (goal, content, learner activity, educational aids (educational materials), teaching-learning strategies, teaching time, teaching space, grouping of learners, and evaluation) and 18 second-level organizer contents. Finally, the network of contents of life-long curriculum in higher education system was designed and its validation was done through validity and reliability techniques and using terangolation.

Introduction Different communities have studied second language from different angles according to their needs. In the current era, life has become miscellaneous and human beings have to learn the language of different societies in order to reach and communicate with different communities. Some of these languages, including English, Hindi, Bengali, Russian and Arabic, are the living languages of the world, and a large number of people speak the languages in the international community, so learning these languages is more essential. Moreover, some studies have shown that as students increase their tolerance to problems and barriers to learning English, their success in learning the language improves. Therefore, the present study emphasizes teaching English language as a living language, and increasing academic resilience in learning this language. Some studies have shown that many students are weak or fail in learning English. This weakness of performance, and failure in learning gradually leads to a sense of disability and failure to address the academic problems they face in learning English, and this could consequently reduce their academic resilience, which correspondingly is a cause for many students to stop learning the language or improve their performance. The aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of advanced organizers and scaffolding, as two approaches to teaching English, with each other and with the traditional approach in enhancing the students’ academic resilience. Research questions 1. Is there any significant difference between the effectiveness of the traditional and scaffolding approaches in enhancing the students’ academic resilience in learning English? 2. Is there any significant difference between the effectiveness of the traditional approach and advanced organizers in enhancing the students’ academic resilience in learning English? 3. Is there any significant difference between the effectiveness of scaffolding and advanced organizers enhancing the students’ academic resilience in learning English? Methods The statistical population of this research consisted of all female secondary school students in Khorramabad city during the academic year of 2015-2016. Participants were selected from this population through the multistage cluster sampling approach. That is, from all the high schools for female students in Khorramabad, three schools were randomly selected and from each school, a class of 20 students was randomly chosen; each of the three classes was then randomly assigned to a teaching approach (i. e. scaffolding, advanced organizers, and traditional). It should be emphasized that the groups in this study had already been already formed and the researchers only assigned each group (class) randomly to the experimental and control groups. All groups responded to Samuels’ s (2004) questionnaire for assessing academic resilience, the validity of which has been approved in two studies. Data was analyzed using covariance analysis. Results Descriptive findings showed that the means of the three groups were very close in the pretest stage, so before the intervention all three groups were almost homogeneous. The descriptive statistics showed that the teaching method of advanced organizers increased student's academic resilience at the post-test stage. The results also showed that there is a difference between the academic resilience scores of the groups that were taught through the Scaffolding approach and advanced organizers. The average of academic resilience scores in the follow up phase also indicated that both educational methods increased the students' academic resilience. Inferential statistics also suggested that at the post-test stage, the advanced organizer and scaffolding techniques increased the students’ academic resilience. However, in the follow-up model, no significant difference was found between the advanced organizer and the scaffolding groups in promoting the students’ academic resilience. Discussion and Conclusion Although there was a significant difference in the students’ academic resilience in the scaffolding and advanced organizers groups, no significant difference was observed between the two groups in the follow-up study and the two approaches proved effective in promoting the students’ academic resilience in the short term. The effectiveness of the advanced organizers approach might be because in this approach, the teacher clarifies the goals of the course to the students so that they will pay more attention to the curriculum content, and this is necessary for facilitating meaningful learning. Moreover, the teacher uses the preliminary interpretations that are useful for the lesson. For instance, the teacher may start teaching by asking students questions to remind them of what they did in the previous sessions, or by requiring them to indicate what they want to say and thereby provides them with some background information, which is necessary for delivering the new lesson. Moreover, the teacher may provide context for the students to make better sense of the new lesson by asking the students to recall a personal experience, and relating the new lesson to their previous experience. In fact, one could arguethat what promotes the students’ academic resilience and learning in this approach are the general patterns the teacher provides, the students’ increased awareness of the new content they learns, as well as the strong cognitive relationships students can construct between what they have previously learned and what they are going to learn. All these factors could contribute to the students’ increased interest in the lesson and their higher engagement in the learning process as well as their acquisition of useful learning skills, which help them to cope with the stress and challenges they might face at school, hence their higher academic resilience.

Introduction Emotional competence refers to ability and skill to negotiate through interpersonal communication and regulate emotional experiences in order to achieve favorable results during emotional conditions (Sharma, 2012). Problem solving training concentrates on obtaining general data about a specified problem, configurating a suitable strategy to solve it and performing and reviewing perfomance until achieving a goal (Kong, Qin, Zhou, Mou, Gao, 2014). Pajares (2003) thinks that self-efficacy beliefs are the bases of important processes such as motivation, psychological welfare and personal interests. Those who have high self-efficacy can remove barriers by means of improving their selfmanagement skills and perseverance and can withstand against problems (Bandura 2004). Chang and Hu (2017) showed that emotional competence plays a mediating role between communication skills and self-efficacy. Zhu, B., Chen, C., Shi, Z., Liang, H. & Liu, B. (2016) showed a significant relationship between emotional competence and selfefficacy. On the other hand, the amount of self-efficacy and productivity among learners and therefore their academic performance improved through problem solving training (woolfolk 2001). Research Question Is there any difference between the impact of emotional competence and problemsolving training on perceived self-efficacy among university students? Methods This quasi-experimental study was performed using a pre-test, post-test-follow-up and control group design. Te statistical population constituted all the students in Mazandaran Farhangian University during the academic year of 2017-2018. Participants were selected by means of multi-stage cluster sampling and Doctor Shariati boy campus was chosen as a center for the study design. Students of Farsi Literature served as the control group, those of Primary Education as the experimental group for taking the emotional competence training course and the students of English Literatur served as the experimental group for joining the problem solving training course. Participants in the experimental group of emotional competence, problem solving and conrol group were 24 and 20 and 27 students, respectively. They were all male and were senior students. The study commenced with a pre-test (Sherer and Maddux self-efficacy scale (1982)) of the participants in the three groups l, and it lasted for a month. The emotional competence and problem solving training were performed by the researcher during 10 sessions; each session was 75-90 minutes and was repeated 3 times a week. However, the members of the control group did not received any interventions. Participants in the three groups answered the questions of the self-efficacy scale twice again, once at the end of the interventions, (post-test step), and a second timr one month after performing pre-test (followup step). Results The average of perceived self-efficacy among the participants in the emotional competence training course changed from 2. 86 in the pre-test to 4. 28 in the post-test and 4. 15 in the followup step. On the other hand, the average of the participants in the problem-solving group changed from 2. 84 in pre-test to 4. 20 in pre-test and 4. 10 in the followup. The mean of the participants in the control group, however, altered from 2. 76 in pre-test to 2. 91 in post-test and 2. 82 in followup step. In order to study the effect of educational methods and to compare the two educational approaches, variance analysis statistical test in frequent measurement was used. The assumptions were analyzed and confirmed before using this test. The results showed a significant difference with 95% confidence level (p<0. 05) in the average of perceived self-efficacy and its components (effort, perseverance, initiative) for each of the control, emotional competence training and problem solving training groups during the pre-test, post-test and follow-up steps. Scheffe test showed significant effect of educational course based on emotional competence and also educational course based on problem solving in the pre-test and followup on perceive sel-efficacy and its components at confidence level of 95% (α =0. 05). However, no significant difference was observed between the effect of emotional competence training and problem solving training on perceived self-efficacy and its components in the pre-test and followup. Discussion and Conclusion The results of this study showed the effectiveness of both methods of emotional cempetence and problem solving training in improving the students’ perceived selfefficacy. However, there was no significant difference between the effect of emotional competence and problem-solving training on the students’ perceived self-efficacy. This effectiveness ustained all through the experiment (1month). The results of the present study are in line with those of Chang and Hu (2017), Zhou et al. (2016), and Woolfolk (2001). Accordingly, based on the model of emotional competence and problem-solving training, it can be argued that students practice different ways in which necessary methods and chances for thinking are provided for them. Therefore, these methods can motivate them to develop new thoughts or ideas and present them without any fear or embarassement. Therefore, it is recommended to plan for emotional competence skills and problem-solving training in order both to help students cope with problems, crisis, to resolve conflict, and to improve communications between the youth and their instructors. The present research recommends Farhangian University officials pay special attention to improving the students’ self-efficacy in order to use methods of emotional competence and problem-solving training. Moreover, it expands the literature on emotional competence, problem solving and self-efficacy.

Introduction Education and training are fundamental for building a healthy society in the future. The adaptation of the learning context to the learner’ s needs has been an important focus in recent years due to the growth and wide-spread changes in educational practices. It is believed that these values function as the principles that help define the professional practices taking place in schools. Paying attention to the buildings and closed spaces of schools and lack of attention to open spaces have been the main weaknesses of schools in Iran and the existing open spaces do not fully address the educational needs of students. The open spaces allow the students to utilize an environment for more informal educational means. Accessibility of open and green space within the schools is important for certain groups of users. This research seeks to find practical ways to design educational spaces that enhance students’ enthusiasm for learning. In contrast to most previous studies that considered one or a few variables to address the problem, the present study tried to take into account some of the most important components for designers. Research Questions Based on the objectives, the current research attempted to answer the following main questions: 1. What elements of architectural design of educational spaces are used in order to increase student’ s learning efficiency? 2. Which design guidelines are considered important by experts in spatial organization of schools to improve students’ learning and creativity? Methods The research method used in this qualitative study was the Delphi technique. The Delphi method is a structured communication technique or method, originally developed as a systematic, interactive forecasting method which relies on a panel of experts. The experts answer questionnaires in two or more rounds. After each round, a facilitator or change agent provides an anonymous summary of the experts’ forecasts from the previous round as well as the reasons they provided for their judgments. Thus, experts are encouraged to revise their earlier answers in light of the replies of other members of their panel. Based on the nature of the study, a questionnaire was used as the main method of data collection. The structure of the questionnaire was based on closed questions, in order to standardize the responses and allow for easier categorization. The questions were taken from the subject literature and each item consisted of a 5-point Likert scale that ranged from “ completely disagree” to “ completely agree. ” The study demonstrated the extent of influence of factors on increasing the students’ learning and creativity by utilizing the views of designers and architects, environmental psychologists, experts in educational spaces working in the Organization for Development, Renovation and Equipping Schools and senior officials of General Directorate of Education. A total of 95 invitations were sent out to the experts and 60 experts agreed to participate and completed the first and second rounds. Results Main domains were extracted from different literature, then they were classified into four groups, namely, physical, environmental, social relation, and furniture and equipment. Each of these groups contained some elements and there were 27 elements entirely. A t-test was used to determine whether or not the experts’ opinions on the first and second round were similar. The results demonstrated that a significance level of α =0. 05 was reached, and the p-value of all criteria exceeded 0. 05. The results showed a very slight increase in the convergence in round two from round one although no significant movement in the mean scores was found. Thus, it was felt that continuing the research for further rounds would not produce any extra convergence of opinions. The next step was to calculate ranks based on the importance of each factor. The research presents the results of the ranking and weighting of the factors by the experts according to the groups of factors. What immediately emerges in each case is the difference in importance ranking given by each group of participants. The results of ANOVA showed statistically significant differences between the designers, architects and environmental psychologists and experts in educational spaces working in the Organization for Development, Renovation and Equipping Schools and senior officials of General Directorate of Education and their opinions to several factors. Discussion and Conclusion Given the different needs of students, a framework for school design is presented to provide design guidelines for architects and professionals. There are some principles that can be used to promote student learning and to provide an environment favorable to education and creativity. It is clear that the designers and architects should consider stated factors and should adhere to the proposed principles and regulations to solve the present difficulties of educational spaces.

Introduction The aim of this study was to test and compare the relationship between achievement goals and friendship goals with help-seeking behavior in the gifted and non-gifted high-school students of Ahvaz, taking the perceived benefit and threat of help-seeking as the mediators. Research hypothesis-Mastery approach goals have an indirect effect on adaptive help-seeking with the mediation of the perceived benefit of help-seeking.-Mastery avoidance goals have an indirect effect on adaptive help-seeking with the mediation of the perceived benefit of help-seeking.-Performance approach goals have an indirect effect on adaptive help-seeking through the mediation of perceived the threat of help-seeking.-Performance avoidance goals have an indirect effect on adaptive help-seeking through the mediation of the perceived threat of help-seeking.-Friendship approach goals have an indirect effect on adaptive help-seeking with the mediation of the perceived benefit of help-seeking.-Friendship avoidance goals have an indirect effect on adaptive help-seeking with the mediation of the perceived threat of help-seeking.-Models of the relationship between achievement goals and friendship goals with help-seeking behavior mediated by the attitude toward help-seeking are different in gifted and non-gifted students. Method The sample included gifted (N=120) and non-gifted (N=12) female students, who were correspondingly selected through census and multi-stage random sampling techniques. The instruments used in the study included the revised achievement goal questionnaire, friendship goals questionnaire, help-seeking threat and help-seeking benefit sub scale and help-seeking questionnaire, with help-seeking threat and helpseeking benefit sub-scales. The data was analyzed using AMOS software to perform path analysis and Structural Equation modeling. Results The results showed that in the two groups (gifted and non-gifted), mastery approach goals and friendship approach goals, predicted the benefit of help-seeking and the benefit predicted higher help seeking behavior. On the other hand, mastery avoidance performance-approach, performance-avoidance and friendship avoidance goals predicted the threat of help-seeking, which correspondingly predicted lower help seeking behaviors. Moreover, mastery avoidance goals were found to have a negative relationship with the benefit of help-seeking. In addition, in the comparing group model, significant differences were observed in the relationship between friendship approach goals and the perceived benefit of help-seeking, between performance approach goals and the perceived threat of help-seeking and between friendship avoidance goals and the perceived threat of helpseeking in the comparison between gifted and non-gifted students. Discussion The findings showed that in both groups, mastery approach goals have an effect on adaptive help-seeking, mediated by the perceived benefits of help-seeking. In accounting for these results, it can be said that students with mastery approach goals are interested in raising their knowledge, understanding and their competence. For them, seeking help from the available resources is considered an adaptive strategy for improving their knowledge. Therefore, they try to find useful help and use it. On the other hand, the results of this study showed a negative relationship between mastery avoidance goals and the perceived benefits of help-seeking in both groups. To elaborate, it can be said that mastery avoidance students focus on learning failure, such as not understanding the concept of a text, and focus more on self-analysis than on social comparisons. These students get less help to hide their low ability. Additionally, the low perceived self-competency of these students causes them to avoid help-seeking because they consider help-seeking a threat to themselves. These students make all their efforts to avoid mistakes. In addition, their level of anxiety is high, they are uninterested in social comparisons and personal development, and their self-efficacy is low. For these reasons, these students considered help-seeking a useless approach and thus try to avoid it. Another finding of this study was a positive relationship between performance approach and performance avoidance goals with the perceived threat of help-seeking in both groups, which in turn was found to have a negative effect on adaptive help-seeking. The finding is justifiable bearing in mind that help-seeking challenges the self-worth of performance-oriented students because they tend to hide their disabilities. Functional students perceive mistakes as a sign of weakness and incompetency and imagine helpseeking as a threat to their ability and self-respect. The negative judgments of others is very important for them, they think that help-seeking makes others perceive that they are ineffective. For this reason, they avoid adaptive help-seeking. In addition, the results showed that in both groups, the friendship approach goals were positively associated with adaptive help-seeking, mediated by the benefits of help-seeking. In explaining these results, we can say that friendship-oriented goals are focused on the creation and expansion of friendship. Students who seek to expand their friendship give and get help and they regard help-seeking as a useful strategy n this respect. In contrast, the students with friendship avoidance goals avoid activities that degrade the quality of social interactions, which disrupts the growth of their social relationships. In addition, these students always eschewed activities that may have negative consequences in their friendship. For this reason, help-seeking was considered threatening and was avoided. Regarding the differences between ordinary and gifted students, the results of multi-group comparisons showed that in the path of the performance approach goals to the perceived threat of help-seeking, of friendship approach to perceived benefits of help-seeking and the path of friendship avoidance goals to the perceived threat of help-seeking, crisis ratio was above 1. 96 and there was a significant difference between two groups. In this regard, the standard coefficient of friendship approach goals with perceived benefit of helpseeking was higher in gifted than in non-gifted students. On the other hand, the coefficient of performance approach to perceived threats was higher in ordinary than in gifted students. Similarly, the coefficient of friendship avoidance goals to perceived threat was higher in ordinary students. The results are justifiable considering the higher self-esteem, self-efficacy and self-competency of the gifted students. Given the results of this study, teachers and education counselors are advised to educate students on adaptive helpseeking strategies and encourage team to collaborate. Teachers and parents are advised to deal with the student's individual differences with respect and avoid methods that encourage competition while creating a supportive environment and emphasizing learning and understanding to motivate students to deeply understand the problems.

Introduction As a significant dynamic period of human life, childhood has always been of great importance to researchers. Children are very active during their early life which improves their locomotor health and consequently their cognitive abilities. This is when most of the developments, including motor development, show a rapid progress in the child. Basic motor skills are among the most significant skills in childhood which are the roots of sport skills learning. In order to learn everyday motor skills and sport skills, basic motor skills are required to be fully experienced. Moreover, numerous studies have claimed that basic motor skills have an influence on physical, social, and cognitive development of the child. While it is well known that playing is in the center of children’ s daily activities, almost all the literature on children’ s sports deals also with the idea of playing games, since sport programs may be designed in the form of games. Playing begins with the child’ s birth and is a natural form with which the child tries to contact with their environment. It is an inseparable part of a child’ s life and its presence in the child’ s daily life is to the extent that it may even escape our notice. The role of playing is indeed evident in the importance it has for the child. It is observed that children get so absorbed in playing that they forget about their surroundings. The main part of a child’ s life consists of playing and discovering the world around. Since playing is an intervention specific to children that has significant advantages over other methods and is actually a way of expressing and interacting in children, in this study the intervention was performed in the form of games. This method attracts children and gives them a chance to precisely and individually examine their behavioral patterns and observe every aspect included. The present study surveys the effect of creative locomotor games on basic motor skills in children between 4 to 6 years old. Research Questions The present research is designed to answer the following questions:-Do creative movement games affect the manipulation skills in 4 to 6 year-old boys and girls?-Do creative movement games affect locomotor skills in 4 to 6 year-old boys and girls? Methods This study used a quasi-experimental method and a pretest-posttest design with a control group. The statistical population of the study included all 4-6 year-old preschool children in Shiraz, Iran, during the 2014-15 school year. Given the objective of the study and using multistage cluster sampling, one kindergarten was selected and 63 children between 4 to 6 years old were chosen (33 for control group and 30 for experiment group) and were accidentally assigned to the control and experimental groups. First, samples were examined by the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD2). This test made an assessment of the basic skills with the two sub-criteria of movement skills (running, trotting, hopping, jumping, sliding) and manipulation skills (hitting a fixed ball, dribbling, getting the ball, hitting a fixed ball by foot, throwing a ball from over the shoulders, turning it over under the shoulder). Subsequently, the experimental group was guided through creative locomotor plays during 24 sessions each for 45 minutes while the control group maintained their usual locomotor activities during the same periods. Finally, the posttests were administered and the scores were recorded for both groups. Levene’ s test was also performed for the homogeneity of variances. Based on this test the 2x2covariance analysis statistical method was used to analyze the data. Results The results showed that in performing object-control skills (F=267. 91 and p=0. 001) and movement skills (F=92. 99 and p=0. 001) there was a meaningful difference between the two groups. But between the two types, there was no meaningful difference in terms of performing movement skills (F=0. 176) and performing manipulation skills (F=0. 547) with a significance level of p ≤ 0. 05. Discussion and Conclusion Considering the present results, locomotor exercise and training in play form could be an effective factor in developing the children’ s basic motor skills. Furthermore, the child’ s need for motor activities requires an appropriate plan for them, especially before entering school. In general, the results of the study showed that environment is a significant factor in the development of basic motor skills in children. We know, however, that in the motor development literature, the overlap of different areas of motor development such as mental, cognitive, social and locomotor has been emphasized and growth experts have noted the interaction of these factors with each other. This shows the importance of providing various and proper motor experiments for an overall development in children. One important reason that makes motor experiments and training motor skills more effective than normal activities is having the chance to exercise. Since creative locomotor games result in basic patterns by involving the child in fundamental motor processes, they need to be more concerned. In this case, chances to develop basic motor skills could be provided by enriching educational environment in preschools.