TARIKH-E ELM
Year:2020 | Volume:18 | Issue:1|Papers Count:12

The formation of international trade network and the development of direct political relationship between the European and Asian nations in the 16th centuries was one of the main reasons for increase in cultural and scientific interaction in this period. One of the most important parts of this interaction was the exchange of knowledge about natural resources, especially the local flora. This article, by introducing the natural historians who wrote about the Indian Ocean flora, tries to clarify the fundamental aspects of this scientific interaction. Based on this premise, this article introduces two groups of scholars: those who directly took part in this scientific intercourse and those who use the data which were transferred to the Europe. Through commercial networks. This study demonstrates that the more correct description of the flora and also discovering the new species led to the gradual decline of the Classic and Muslim’ s natural history’ s influence on the botanical knowledge of 16th and 17th centuries.

Athī r al-Dī n Mufaḍ ḍ al ibn ‘ Umar Abharī , an astronomer, philosopher and mathematician (13th century) wrote many masterpieces in different domains as well as Hay’ a or theoretical astronomy. There exists a manuscript including a set of there treatise under the title Thalā th Rasā ’ il. The first member of the set is Risā la fī al-Hay’ a, an edition of which is presented here acconding to the only extant manuscript. This treatise could be categorise as an abridged hay’ a book. The author presents a summary of theoretical Ptolemaic astronomy whithout argumentation. The text is followed by a commentary of the text and a biography of the author.

One of the most important and interesting topics in the field of Iranology and Iranian Studies is the calendar that has emerged from the beginning of the eighteenth century a considerable literature around it. There was much discussion about the Iranian calendar, and such topic as: The origins of the calendar and its impact accepting from the Egyptian calendar, as well as the developments and reforms that the Iranian calendar has undergone since the Achaemenid times until today; many times have been studied and researched from various angles. One of the most important discussions of the Iranian calendar was the existence or absence of a intercalation in it, as well as how to leap into it. To now, various opinions have been offered. And they often point to the existence of two years: a fixed year and rotation year in Iran and the process of one month leap in every 120 to 116 years. The present article is going to look at the subject of intercalary in the Iranian calendar with a different understanding of the concept of wihē zag in Iranian calendar.

Niello is a decorative technique on the engraving surface of silver and gold metal and that usually use to create contrast and look good of engraving motifs on metal surface. The Niello has a very long history and the first examples in Iran have been seen in the metal works of the Sassanid period and the culmination of this art was during the Seljuk period. Also the Niello technique done Among Iran different Native tribes with different religions. Despite the fact that there are differences in the implementation of the Niello technique among Muslims, Armenians and the Ahwaz Mandaean, the rich history of this art can create the conditions for innovation between each of these tribes. The importance of this subject has created the necessity that be done this research look for identify of the Niello art properties in the Seljuk metalwork and how to use it to contemporary metalwork art deployment. Also library and documentary information have been studied with a descriptive-analytical approach. The present research looks for the answer these questions: 1-how was implemented the Niello technique in the Seljuk period? 2-How can use the Seljuk decorative technique in the contemporary metalwork art? The results of the research show that the usage of Iran metal art techniques and decorative motifs of ancient period arts with innovation and creativity and usage of technology can be can expand Niello art among Muslim tribes and non-Muslims, especially the Armenian and Mandaean tribes.

Fictionalism about scientific models is a philosophical approach according to which many important questions about the nature and function of models can be answered by taking models as fiction, without any ontological commitments to models. In this approach, fiction is a technical term denotes on a particular kind of imagination in which the participant due to the presence of prop is engaged in the pretence action: she takes some false statements as true and participates in the constructed fictional world. In this paper, after elaborating Walton's account of fiction and make-believe games and his aim to cover metaphors by the same mechanism of pretence, and by focusing on Camp's criticisms and her point to distinguish metaphorical imaginations from fictional ones, we will reach the conclusion that Walton's account is not appropriate to cover metaphors. Next, we will consider Frigg's use of Walton's account to analyse scientific models. It will argued that Frigg's framework is inadequate to cover metaphorical models, which in parallel with fictional ones play a crucial role in science.

“ Aks” is a name applicable both on Conversion and Contraposition. The purpose of this article is to draw the historical perspective of the two logical rules, aiming to achieve a small part of big puzzle of the ‘ History of Islamic Logic’ . Limiting itself to the history and geography of Islamic World, the article traces the line of development, immediately after Aristotle, in Farabi and Ibn Sina; then follows it in Baghdadi, Suhrawardi, Fakhr al-Din Razi, Kashi, Bamiyani, Khunaji, Urmawi, Abhari, Tusi, Katibi, Hilli, and finally, Qutb al-Din Razi. After Qutb, Islamic logic catches stagnation and even declines. Therefore, we cannot expect any innovation from the later logicians, not only in conversion and contraposition, but also in other logical topics.

Metal transmutation is one of principal concept in Greco-Egypt alchemy. Based on this concept, alchemical theory had raised and practical process operated. There are various meanings of transmutation that shape various practical process. Since 1990, these meanings understood in artificial alchemy framework until new results from recent historiography of alchemy turned to new scope: Aristotle natural philosophy. Studying of Alchemical source of Scientific or philosophical theories in Early Modern Europe result this turning. By focusing on “ mixis” , Aristotle presented new framework for understanding metal transmutation in alchemical traditions.

The authority of science in society and public policy has been rapidly increasing, since the rise of empirical science in 17th century. Today, all over the world, even in less developed countries, the institution of science and scientists have considerable authority in shaping public policy. This has raised concerns, especially in democratic societies, over the responsibilities of science and scientists. Does this increasing authority bring new responsibilities for science or not? In this paper, after a brief review of the developments that led to the science having such authority in modern societies, we will discuss the sociological sources of authority and the distinction of theoretical and practical authority. It will be argued that only the theoretical authority of science can be legitimate, and according practical authority to science is unjustified. This theoretical authority, therefore, should not bring any new responsibility for the scientist. Because it is unfair, incompatible with democratic standards, and moreover, an obstacle in the way scientist which detains the progress of science and deviates its course.

The jurisprudence in Islamic civilization is related to mathematics by employing the arithmetic needed for the solution of the inheritance problems. This issue is mainly discussed as a section titled "Book of Inheritance" (Kitā b al-Farā ʾ iḍ or Kitā b al-Mī rā ṯ ) in the standard jurisprudential Books, but there are also some independent treatises on the subject. In this paper, we have edited and commented on of these independent treatises, titled Risā lat fī al-Ḥ isā b, which is wrongly attributed to Jamā l ad-Dī n al-Ḥ asan bin Yū suf bin ʿ Ali bin al-Muṭ ahhar al-Ḥ illī , also known as al-Allamah al-Ḥ illī . The two manuscripts of this treatise are the manuscript number 1148/2 in Astan Qods Library and the manuscript number 393/11 in Fazil Khansari Library. In this paper, this attribution is rejected based on three evidence: firstly, the title of the treatise is not mentioned among the two major lists of Allamah al-Ḥ illī 's works; secondly the jurisprudential content of the treatise attributes to Sunni jurisprudence, hence it could not be of Allamah al-Ḥ illī , one of the prominent Shiite scholars. Thirdly, the name of the author is already mentioned in the text as Ḥ asan al-Makkī and Allamah al-Ḥ illī is not known by this name. It is possible that Hassan ibn Muḥ ammad, known as Qā zī Ḥ asan al-Makkī (11/17 century), is the author of the treatise. The treatise begins with a basic introduction to arithmetic and then continues with jurisprudential subjects and rules. The main problem this knowledge is known as "the arithmetic of inheritance" is to calculate the shares of all heirs only in integer numbers, this process is called "Taṣ ḥ ī ḥ ". Each section of the treatise is ended with some examples. In this paper also we have studied the life of the 393/11 in Fazil Khansari Library's scribe, ʿ lī Qolī ī bn Himmat ʿ lī Sarā bī , on the basis of the evidence he had provided himself in the colophons of the treatises.

Lapis lazuli, a stone named that extracted in the Iranian plateau. The main source of Lapis lazuli is Sar-I Sang mines in Badakhshan province in northeast Afghanistan. The stone is dark blue with golden pyrithic spots and a semi-precious stone known in the ancient Persia and is one of the Persian exportation to the world. Many Iranian scholars, including Abu Reyhan Biruni, Ibn Sina, Khaje Nasiral-din Tusi, Johari Neishabouri, etc., have mentioned many of the characteristics of this stone and their healing properties. Iranian artists in the middle age and the renaissance European artists used the stone as a lagoon color (blue indigo) in their paintings. Today, the stone is used to make semi-precious gems, decorative items, paintings, and artistic works and energy therapies. This stone can be studied using modern characterization methods in chemistry. Chemists using FTIR, XRD, SEM, EDS, SR, PIXE methods and combination of them, can determine the structure, source, age, morphology, impurity, composition and history of lapis lazuli.

According to the role of ʿ Abd al-Ghaffā r Najm al-dawla in the introduction of modern sciences to Iran, we will know physics is one of the sciences that he has influenced on transition of it. ʿ Abd al-Ghaffā r had essays and tranlations in this field of study. Some of his works in physics are: Jarr-i Thaqῑ l (translation from Poinsot), Takā fū ʾ-i Quwā (statics), physics and chemistry and ʿ ilm-i bukhā rā t. Until now we achieved two transcriptions of his works. First, the book ʾ Uṣ ū l-i ʿ Ilm-i Sitā tῑ k, which he translated into Persian on 1277 A. H. On the first page of this book he said: “ the meaning of statics is ʿ ilmi muwā zinih-i ʾ ajsā m” . The other book is physics that was written at request of Mukhbir al-dawla, minister of sciences and mines, on the 1293 A. H. for the use of public, not only for educated people. Najm al-dawla in this book expresses different concepts of modern physics in a simple word, and does not use numerical and parametric issues. These two books are transcripts and have not been published. Also a French printed book named Nouvelles Ré cré ations Physiques et Mathé matiques written by M. Guyot and is kept in Library, Museum and Document Center of Iran Parliament was at ʿ Abd al-Ghaffā rʼ s disposal that may help us to have better perception. The purpose of this article is review and presentation of above books as a part of first works of modern physics in Iran and especially because of their relation to ʿ Abd al-Ghaffā r Najm al-dawla.