JOURNAL OF LITERARY CRITICISM AND RHETORIC
Year:2020 | Volume:9 | Issue:3|Papers Count:8

It has been about four decades since George Lakoff and Mark Johnson brought up the notion of conceptual metaphor in their book Metaphors We Live By (1980). Since then, this theory has found numerous followers and accordingly it has been applied to Persian linguistic and literary researches as well. This essay contends that these two thinkers were not in fact the originator of conceptual metaphor and that, as Richards says, the theorization of this type of metaphor goes back to the olden times. The article attempts to compare literary and conceptual metaphor through the thoughts of Islamic and western masters of eloquence and the definitions of literary and conceptual metaphor that they have given in order to highlight the point that the definition of these two kinds of metaphor should be distinctly recognized and the consideration of one should not result in the overlooking of the other. Considering these two types as the same, undermines their value and independence and may even force the mind to choose one and ignore the other-there are cases in which this has happened or at least some writers have intended to do so. On the one hand George Lakoff’ s insistence on rejecting traditional definitions of metaphors in his essay titled “ The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor” (1993) and on the other hand the enthusiastic acclamation of conceptual metaphor in recent years are some of the reasons for doing this study. In this article, however, neither of these two notions are denied and efforts are made to consolidate the status of both of them. So the outcomes of conceptual metaphor in both language and literature are illustrated and it is argued that this new type of metaphor does not cause limitation to literary metaphor, but can be an appropriate element in linguistic and literary studies.

Cultural identities in contemporary societies are influence of “ cultural industry” or "mass culture" that is liar, median and extemporaneously theory and influence of Frankfurt school scientist as an important theory in the world. Therefore, “ Culture industry” is a material and pseudo category and have no generic, dynamism and animal spirits. Whole of this is false and chimerical asked in contemporary consumption societies that remove people from original culture and attained material and intellectual expectations by programmed goals. Therefore, the society exploited by capitalist powers and consumed by his commodities. Now, modern human influence of west consumable culture. Consumable human in consumption society, is living and thinking by economic powers ideals and is relocating with his original culture value. Ordibehesht Diary by Jafar Modarres Sadeghi, is among of decade of 90 in contemporary Iranian literature; in other words a period of contemporary history that urbanized middle rank of society is involved to apparent of modernism and “ cultural industry” and forgot trueborn origin thinking through cultural industries capitalist and schematic goals. This roman and cling of “ cultural industry” has a character who is a bad symbol of modern human and just is consuming everything over plus and is severing of spiritual live ultimately. This research, by descriptive and analytical method, has review and analyze category of “ cultural industry” and sociology dimension. Accordingly, narrator of this roman is a lonely man that satisfied with over plus consumption, west material culture and attend to medial culture, because in his society has any original and good thing. Consequently, this character is a symbol of "One-Dimensional man" according of Marcuse's views. That kind of contemporary character is influencing of "Alienation" and is reflecting this entire characteristic in this roman. Now, we are critic and analyzing this theory in this roman as a good and suitable choice.

Afzal Makhdoum Pirmasti is a poet and biography writer from Herat, Bukhara (death: 1916). In the introduction of his Tadhkirah-ye Afzal alTazkar fi Zekr al-Sho’ ara va al-Ash’ ar, also known as Afzal’ s Biography of Poets he declares that he wrote the book by order of the emir of the Emirate of Bukhara, Abd al-Ahad Khan (1886-1910), in 1904 about 137 poets of Bukhara and the Persian speaking regions — who lived in Bukhara — from 1787/1788 until the year of compiling the book. There is little known about this author and his writing. The information about him in the sources in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan are not without errors. Thus, this study aims to introduce Afzal’ s Biography of Poets and critical ideas. To achieve this aim, the article seeks to find out who Afzal Makhdoum was, what his critical ideas about biography were, and what role his book had in Persian literary biography writing of Transoxiana. The findings show that Afzal’ s Biography of Poets is a piece of independent, regional, contemporary prose in the Persian language and that it played a significant role in the area and is considered as one of the main sources containing the biography of the 19th-and 20th-century poets of Transoxiana. His critical ideas could be classified into four categories: historical-interpretive, moral, socio-political, and rhetoric-aesthetic. However, it was written by the order of the emir. As a result, he considered the court and the personal interests of the emir in presenting critical views. Yet, due to the important role he played in reviving the names and works of his contemporary poets in Bukhara, he immediately attracted the attention of poetry and literature enthusiasts of this period so that his book has always been one of the main sources for researches on the literature of Bukhara and its related areas.

The Nocturnal Harmony of the Wood Orchestra” by Reza Ghasemi is one of the most significant postmodern stories in Persian literature. It tells the life of a group of Iranian immigrants and exiles living in France who are still struggling with their original culture and beliefs. Chaos theory, which is one of the well-known and widely used theories in physics and meteorology, is reflected in this story. Since this story is a piece of metafiction, the author/narrator consciously refers to the chaos theory and in particular to the butterfly effect. This study, after introducing the most characteristic features of chaos theory, reads “ The Nocturnal Harmony of Wood Orchestra” in light of this theory. It uses a descriptive-analytical method to investigate the effect of chaos theory on the postmodern aspects of this fiction and on the lives and destinies of the characters. We seek to show how the manifestation of a scientific theory in the story reinforces its postmodern aspects. Chaos theory is used in various sciences. It talks about nonlinear events and processes based on uncertainty. The manifestation of chaos theory in this story distinguishes it from others. According to this theory, complex and turbulent phenomena and events are the result of multiple causes and constantly affect each other. These kinds of phenomena are sensitive to their initial conditions and their various components, based on the butterfly effect, self-similarity, dynamic adaptation, and strange attractors, show a kind of order in disorder or a quasi-chaotic situation. The results of this study show that the chaos theory, through disturbing and unfamiliar propositions, highlights the postmodern aspects of the story and at the same time justifies the confusion of the characters while coordinating the form and content. This theory describes the intertwined and complex lives and fates of the characters in a postmodern way and shows the effects of small variables on large events and the fates of the characters.

Examining the names of characters has a fundamental application in the analysis of fiction. Characters often play an important part in the theme because of their names and in most cases, readers understand the theme with their help. Therefore, names are always influential in determining the encounter with the text and its context. In narratology, the question of how writers introduce the characters of their stories to the reader is of great importance; naming anything is like creating it. Choosing the right name for fictional characters is one of the most artistic ways to introduce characters and direct the reader’ s attention to them. But changing characters’ names is one of the most innovative ways of characterization. By adopting such an approach to characterization, Rumi seeks to convey information to the audience in a way that is consistent with his mystical insight — breaking norms and mocking the boundaries of storytelling to achieve meaning. Since in the Islamic structure of Mathnawi the opportunity to introduce characters is little, the narrator introduces the characters of his stories to the reader in a very effective and concise way, which is specific to mystical language. Changing the letters is a technique that is chosen by the narrator of Mathnawi as a new way of characterization in line with this brevity. The research shows such changes are important in terms of semiotics and creative characterization. The changes in the names of the characters of the tales of Mathnawi can be studied in three areas: linguistic, syntactic, and literary. The causes of these changes include conveying feelings, observing rhythm, changing the personalities in the course of the story, the narrator’ s attachment to the fictional characters, the narrator’ s humor, some narrators who lie, changing the point of view, and making the story interesting and appealing to the reader.

There is no doubt that great Persian poets such as Ferdowsi, Saadi, Hafez and Nezami are the architect, criterion, acid test and preserver of language, language identity and Persian eloquence. One of the cornerstones of Persian language and eloquence is Hafez Shirazi. Hafez’ s poems have been studied and analyzed from different approaches. In the present study attempt has been made to examine the imposed restriction in Hafez’ s speech and understand what methods exist in Persian language for creating restriction in speech to be worthy of attention as far as art's esthetics approach, eloquence and applied semantics are concerned. To do so, while extracting and categorizing restrictive cases and providing generalizable rulesare dealt, various issues have been conducted Hafez’ s art and as enjoying the above linguistic techniques. Mentioning palaces in Persian language have been made more with yardstick of palace's eloquence in Arabic language without attention to Persian language specific structure whereas they have different structures in speech's highlighting. Furthermore, other cases also exist that have not been paid attention to. In the present study which has been carried out using descriptive analysis and quantitative and qualitative design aiming at attaining yardsticks and criteria for analyzing Persian literary texts in semantics approach. Therefore attempts have been made while examining the way comparing the principles in semantics with Persian language structure through data analysis, offering a model for artistic speech assessment is developed. To do so, following studying and examining Hafez’ s sonnets and analyzing eloquence-syntax structure, some selections of his poems have been organized. Hafez uses restriction words constantly even though it may be regarded more ordinary and less importance in view point of literary criticism but in literature which is the arena for meta norms and escaping the norms, a master and rhetorician as Hafez even has enjoyed the above technique in a way that has not impaired speech. Therefore, the analysis of Hafez's poems from the point of view of semantics, especially bound and restriction, can be the grammatical and linguistic basis in Persian rhetoric.

Literature is constructed by language. Therefore, we can use linguistic theories in literary studies. Among these theories, functionalism is more appropriate for rhetorical studies because, in addition to particular clauses and the text as a whole, functionalists pay special attention to the context in which the text was written — and this is the fundamental of rhetoric. To functionalists, every clause has three basic roles called metafunctions. One of these metafunctions is establishing an interaction between the utterer and the addressee. This metafunction has various components including modality. Modality refers to a collection of the speaker’ s judgments regarding what they say and the uncertainty which they apply to the clauses. A significant part of Persian literature is panegyric poetry. The Ghaznavid Court was one of the most important supporters of the panegyrists. The main components of the context, in panegyric poetry, are the poet, the person who is being praised, and the position which the praised person holds. This study aims at analyzing the influence of these components on the usage of modality in Ghaznavid panegyric poetry in order to find out any possible patterns and rules in the extant poems of this period. Furthermore, the poems which do not follow the aforesaid rules are analyzed according to their historical context. The article argues that the promotion of the praised person, from “ prince” to “ king” (sultan), cause changes in the poet’ s rhetorical and poetical approach in using modality. In more accurate words, as a result of the promotion of the praised person the poet uses less modal elements in his panegyrics. In addition, although changes in the position of the poet or the praised person mostly do not lead to significant alterations in the quantity of the modal components, such alterations do occur in some circumstances such as rivalries for achieving political dominance.

One of the forms of Persian literature is lyrics, which affords the widest horizon in expressing emotion and receiving emotional and sensory experiences. Tone is the color the speaker adds into the words, and in Saadi’ s lyrics there exist many different tones, which are intertwined. These tones play a crucial role in expressing his artistic and emotional message to the reader. Elements such as poetic form, rhythm, syllables, the meaning of words, sentence structures, and descriptive and poetic imagery are some of the items that form tone. Any literary work contains one or more tones and understanding them is so crucial that perceiving the expressed meaning depends on this understanding. The discussion of tone is related to the field of semantics, because the debate as to whether or not the tone is chosen in accordance with the audience’ s mood goes back to that field. Each word is a unit of language that conveys a message from the speaker to the audience. To convey in the best possible way, the will of the speaker and the expectations of the audience should be considered. In order to speak in accordance with his audience’ s mood, Saadi expresses the most difficult meanings in the simplest way. Bringing difficult meanings in the form of simple words is Saadi’ s art, and understanding these difficult meanings depends on perceiving Saadi’ s tone. The present article is an attempt to understand Saadi’ s lyrics through his word choice, imagery, repetitions, and coordinating rhythm. The purpose of this study is to understand Saadi’ s tone in two of his poems by extracting those tone-making elements from the text. Understanding the tone-making elements in the poetry of Saadi is possible by expanding the area of research in this field, while by ignoring some of the factors his message fails to be received properly.