Woman in Development and Politics
Year:2004 | Volume:2 | Issue:1|Papers Count:11

Considering the status of womens employment in Iran and given their untapped potential as a labor force, facilitating their access to the labor market, can pave the way for increased social benefits. Therefore identifying the factors that promote greater participation of women in the economic and social sectors is of the utmost importance. Perhaps the most effective factor in promoting womens labor force participation is their level of education. Educated women demonstrate a greater willingness to put their skills to use in the labor market. Attracting educated and skilled women to the labor market requires greater investment. In an effort to identifying the impact of each of the variables in attracting educated women to the labor market, this study utilizes a econometric model. Variables in this analysis include womens share in the employed labor force, the birthrate, share of girls registered in middle school, gross domestic product per capita, the share of employed women in the labor force with higher education, and the relation of the level of investment to the level of gross domestic product. The results for the period 1345-1380 (1966-2001) using the OLS methodology, demonstrates that increase in education levels increase womens opportunities in employment. Also the increase in the gross domestic product and in the amount of investment increase womens share in the labor force.

In the past two decades, the expansion of ethnic identity movements has increased the number of studies examining the social, cultural, and political dynamics of ethnicity. A review ofthe studies demonstrates that the gender aspect of ethnicity has been largely over-looked and tended to consider gender as a contextual variable. This article is based on the findings of a survey in four cities of Sistan and Baluchestan Province, to examine the importance of gender attitude in the development of ethnic identity. The hypothesis is that the unequal status of the two ethnic groups (Baluch and Non-Baluch) especially in terms of access to educational opportunities, has resulted in two different attitudes with respect to gender roles. Traditional and relatively modem attitudes of gender have differentiated the two ethnic groups. Additionally, it has impacted the family structure and the social dynamics within ethnic groups. The analysis of the data attributes many of the differences between groups to differences in the level of education .Other variables, such as different religions, also affect the difference in perspectives and cultural behavior.

New poverty paradigm considers the reasons for deprivation of female headed households: gender and lack of access to resources. This paradigm conveys the urgency and need for raising the question of "whether female headed households are the poorest of the poor?" The goal of this paper is to examine whether this generalization holds true in the case of Iran. Available national macro statistics on an absolute poverty and relative poverty in the period of 1370-1380 (1991-2001) have been analyzed and examined for the purpose of this research. The main fmdings indicate that women are at increased risk of poverty and that the poverty rate of female headed households is higher than the poverty rate of male headed households, but the gap between the two groups has diminished. While the poverty rate of female headed households in urban areas has decreased, uneducated and low literate female headed households remain at high risk of poverty. Also, the study indicates that as the number of income earners in these families increase, the likelihood of poverty in the poorest segments of this population decreases. Female headed households of Iran, because oflow education levels, small families and fewer numbers of income earners within the family can be classified as the poorest groups living in poverty.

The increased rate of womens employment and education has weakened the legitimacy of womens roles in traditional (patriarchal) families. At the same time, challenges in balancing traditional and modem roles have contributed to the emergence of a crisis in womens identity. As a result, there is an urgent need for women to redefine their identity. This research examines the individual and structural factors that contribute to womens hesitation in taking on traditional roles, in resisting stereotypical gender definitions, and womens capacity in redefming social identity. The research has utilized a survey approach as well as in depth interviews as its methodology. The results indicate that the structural position of women as compared with the personal sense of identify has greater influence in redefining womens social identity and their capacity to resist stereotypical gender definitions. Additionally, the study indicates that the impact of education has been greater than the impact of employment on the redefmition of womens social identity. Religious women, who have attained higher education, experience a lack of cohesion in their identity. However, as these women continue with their education, they begin to rethink their religious and traditional identities, and as a result are able to greatly overcome the contradictions.

It is apparent that globalization has created both a sense of promise and fear in the world community. This phenomenon has created both opportunities and threats for developing countries. Developed nations and developing, urban and rural areas, men and women, are affected differently by globalization. The depth and complexity of the outcome of globalization for women is more severe. As such, while globalization can have a positive impact on women, such as increases in income, employment, social capital, efficiency, choices, knowledge and information, and a decline in the birth rate, it also has an equally negative impact on women, such as growth of the employment in informal sector, low wages, reduced food safety, increased migration, disintegration of traditional values, lack of job security, and increases in consumerism. Globalization, because of social, economic, political and cultural limitations of women, has impacted them more severely, bringing greater challenges and threats as compared with the opportunities.

Womens social and economic participation is considered to be an important development indicator. In developing countries, however, social and cultural factors have limited the opportunity for womens participation in social and economic structures. This paper examines the factors which promote the rate of participation by women in the labor market within the provinces of Iran. The methodology applied is a regression model utilizing panel data. The results indicate; factors influencing the womens participation in the labor market include level of education, the incentive to gain income, and the rate of male unemployment. Negative factors include rural-urban migration (the rate of urbanization), rate of womens unemployment, and the birthrate. The trend of womens participation in the labor market of Iran is V-shaped in which has experienced an upward turn in recent years.

The aim of this paper is to identify indicators that demonstrate the lack of gender balance in the Iranian labor market. Based on a review of the theories on the dual labor market and the distinctions between available employment options in the first and second sectors, the emergence of employment opportunities and their implications for women will be examined. The indicators have been identified based on data and official national reports. The fmdings point to the low level of womens participation, despite the increase in their presence as compared with the past decade, as well as the concentration of women in relatively few economic activities. The results also point to the relatively higher level of unemployment among women, especially young women in urban areas, as compared with mens unemployment level. The gender-based employment indicators in different parts of the country speak of alarming gender imbalances. For example, in Lorestan Province, the rate of womens unemployment in urban areas is 53% and 64.6% in rural areas. In urban areas, the problems of womens unemployment and in rural areas the high rate of male unemployment exist at alarming levels.

The market for skilled labor in Iran suffers from a severe gender imbalance in terms of both supply and demand, impacting women negatively. While there has been increased access to higher education for women, which has in turn impacted the rate of availability of skilled women, a lack of gender balance persists. First, while women have had increased access to higher education (in terms of numbers rather than quality), are still graduating at lesser rates than men, are under-represented in some technical courses, suffer from lack of access to certain fields, and are underrepresented in training and education sectors beyond the bachelors level (i.e., the Masters and PhD levels). Second, women face certain obstacles and challenges in the labor market, such as inequality in their level of activity and participation and rate of employment. Additionally, there are obstacles and challenges in the demand for womens skilled labor in the market. Horizontal and vertical employment diversity, stemming from structural, cultural, and political perspectives, can only be corrected through appropriate policies and institutional changes in the country

Besides the significant differences in the level of participation and unemployment rates of men and women, differences in the type of employment, job promotion and wages also exist in the Iranian labor market. In this paper, the analysis of the unfavorable status of women in the labor market is based on neoclassical theory, gender theory and the segmentation of the labor market theories. These theories are complementary and each one explains one aspect of the problem under study. The aim of this study is to examine the gender dimensions of the structure of the labor market, in terms of the variety of employment options, job promotion and earning potential (wages) in Iran. The study utilizes both an explanatory and analytical approach, in examining the 1375 population census (1996), the 1379 family income and expenditure census (2000), and the 1382 employment and unemployment data (2003). The results of the study confirm theories that claim the existence of a limited variety of employment options for women as well as their limited job promotion opportunities. Additionally, womens wages, even with equal education levels, tend to be less than mens wages. A higher rate of difference exists between men and women in rural areas and also between men and women with lower education levels. The median income of men in rural and urban areas is 2.2 and 8.1 times higher than that of women, respectively. In other words, for the same amount of work hours, mens wages in urban areas are 63% higher than the wages earned by women.