PAZHUHESH-E ZABANHA-YE KHAREJI
Year:2002 | Volume:- | Issue:12|Papers Count:14

Typological classification is historically the first manifestation of typology in modern linguistics, starting with the morphological classification of language in the nineteenth century. Morphological typology usually recognizes three canonical types of language: isolating, agglutinating, and fusional, to which is sometimes added a fourth: polysynthetic. The majority of the worlds languages do not correspond to these types. In fact, the traditional morphological typology involves a language as a whole, not a particular construction. It could just as easily be applied to different parts of the linguistic system. For instance, the nominal system of a language may be agglutinative while the verbal system is fusional.

Infinitive, as a component of language, constitutes a basic form of verb in different languages. The study of infinitive from the perspectives of lexical structure and syntactic features attracted the attention of researchers as it is found in syntactic structures of both written and spoken discourse. This study examined the syntactic features of infinitive in Farsi and in Russian in order to find their similarities and differences in these two languages. The results show that on the bases of the syntactical features, infinitive can be regarded as a verb in Russian, whereas it is similar to noun in farsi.

To convey their messages to their readers, writers and poets of different nations have benefitted from the subject of journey or travel. Some of these writers and poets have given the subject a symbolic meaning, others have given it a mystic and spiritual significance, still others have used it to reform and guide the people of their own society. Whatis almost certain is that from both the writers and the readers perspectives the subject has been regarded as important. In English and American literature also one can find many examples in which journey or travel has been used as a background for conveying different messages and ideas. The paper intends to present some of these literary works. Moreover, factors or elements that have played a determining role in the shaping of those literary works will also be discussed.

The present study was conducted to investigate the role of listening in the acquisition of a second language. The basic principle of natural language learning, which is most closely associated with Krashens monitor model, is the distinction he has drawn between acquisition and learning. Acquisition is considered to be implicit, subconscious and follows a fairly stable order of acquisition of structure. Learning, however, is explicit, conscious and does not contribute directly to acquisition of language and performance. For a second language learner practice in listening is advocated before production by supporters of this view. Students participating in this study were two homogeneous groups with similar backgrounds. The instruments used consisted of a written proficiency test and series of taped listening comprehension drills. An experimental design was used and the students were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. The data were analyzed using a test which indicated that the difference among the mean scores on the tests was not significant. This could be due to various factors which have to be carefully controlled if similar studies are to be carried out.

This paper aims at introducing a group of linguistic items called discourse markers among other things. These items constitute a functional-pragmatic category of linguistic expressions which as the name suggests fuction primarily or even exclusively on the level of discourse, rather than that of sentence,i.e. they pertain to language use, rather than to language structure, and thus cannot be studied in the absence of a context. Discourse markers are thought of as providing metalinguistic indications about the unfolding discourse. This paper first introduces an approach to the study of discourse markers formulated by Deborah Schiffrin (1987), and then based on the line of analysis in that approach attempts at comparing and contrasting the functions of but from English and "اما" from Persian as discourse markers. It will become known that while these two markers have certain functions in common, they differ in one important function, that is, whereas "اما" is used as a marker of topic shift and introducing a new topic in Persian discourse, but does not have such a function in the English discourse.

Nowadays many different language-teaching methodologies are designed. Each of these methodologies is aimed to help the language learner to learn a foreign language, but each follows a special philosophy. This article examines the principles and foundations of language teaching methodologies, the education goals, theoretical principles, the methods and techniques employed, and the educational material used in these methodologies are discussed. The researcher attemps to analyze the scientific principles of the Global Structure Audio-Visual method or Structuro-Globale Audio- Visuelle (SGAV). He will simultaneously try to present the educational methods and the amount of the application of grammar in this method. The idea presented in this article considers teaching and learning the grammar of a language as one part of a whole in global and communicative learning. The goal in teaching grammar should be such that the learning and teaching of grammar is not separated from the other aspects of communicative foreign language learning. In this way, all phonetic and intonation aspects of the speech of a foreign language, useful vocabulary, grammar, verbal and non-verbal speech (signs, gestures and allusions) and personal behavior that serve speech in a real sutuation are taught to the language learner, all in global and multilateral structures, by use of the facilities provided by SGAV. The language learner is then immediately required to apply them in an artificial, and then a real situation which is provided by the teacher using the available references within the site. Nowadays, the teacher should not provide information regarding the rules of the language for the language learner, and thehmguage learner should not be satisfied with knowing the rules (of the grammar) only. Rather, s/he should experience the language in real speech, and even unexpected situations. The last point to mention is that: unless a language learner lives a foreign language, and unless s/he commits the, sometimes predictable, errors resulting from the learning process, s/he will never learn a language properly.

Syntax, as a part of grammar, studies the rules and characteristics of word combination. It also analyzes the role of words in the structure of syntactic units such as phrase and sentence. The most important grammatcal concepts corresponding to Russian syntax are: syntactic unit, syntactic relation, phrase, sentence, parts of sentence. The present paper investigates grammatical concepts constituting Russian syntax.

Gerard de Nerval, who was a great French writer in the first half of the nineteenth century, created a new innovation in the literary genre of this century by publishing his book Journey to East (1851). During his age, journey in literature had put on a new face, and it should be mentioned that several works had been published in this field. But Nerval, who had been influenced by English and German writers, and had studied several works related to the journeys of writers, decided to take away the monotonous manner in writing concrete itinerary, and be the sponsor of a new literary genre, which have had its special position in point of view of literature. He spent seven years for writing his great work, and was to fulfil his goal, that is the significance and importance of journey in literature through writing novel. In this article we will see how his great work has generated in point of view of literature.

Journey and travel seem to have provoked the imagination of poets, novelists and playwrights in the literature of different nations. As a whole journey represents a broader concept in the world of drama. The journey begins by the title of the play and on the stage the characters heighten it to a climax so that the memory of the journey lasts for a long time after the play itself is over. Three plays that are discussed in the paper depict three different kinds of journeys: For instance Eugene LAbicli ridicules traveling by train in his play, Mr. Perrichons Journey; Albert CAMuss Misunderstanding is about a tragic trip; Jules SupERviELLE in his Sheherazade embarks on a journey on the wings of imagination.

By having a glance at the French history and literature, it can be found out that the eighteenth century human beings were laden with eagerness for journey, discovery, adventurism, traveling and exploring the unknown and far horizons and lands. This eagerness gave rise to the widespread publication of travel accounts which were all the result of experiences from all European societies. It is all obvious that fiction is a very appropriate ground for the illustration of trip in the development of the modern economic geography, and has been an impetus in creating increasing changes in the culture and civilization of countries. Investigating the most important novels of the eighteenth century, this article examines the mutual effects of traveling and fiction in Europe and especially in France, a literature which encourages a lot of readers to travel and to seek adventures by combining reality and imagination and creating new myths, while at the same time undergoing a change in this direction.

In the beginning of this article there is a comparison between the personages, themes, and events in Lev Tolstoy and Feodor Dostayevski works opposed to Anton Checkovs works. Opposed to Tolstoy and Dostayevski who wrote about extraordinary personages and the great and important events of Russia and the world, Chekov wrote about common themes, everyday events, and personages from middle-class families. After this comparison, Checkovs use of old and traditional themes, that have been seen in other authors works like Gagol, with the defference that they are written in the form of short story comedies, is shown and analysed. He not only critisized literature themes, but with a new outlook he showed and analysed them. In this way he expresses his point of view about different ideas written in different literary works.

The word travel in literature goes along with the word exotism meaning non-native. This word became prevalent in French literature after. the nineteenth century as a result of numerous travels of writers to diverse spots including the East. The souvenir of these travels was a series of stereotypes and set thoughts entered literature so that some of them still remain in French literature. Sometimes contemporary writers resorted to these set thoughts to discribe the customs or habits of the East that on the one hand, stem from westernisation of the East among the Europeans and on the other hand, it is the explanation of a sort of intertexture. The Eastern thought is totally based on beliefs and recognitions of the culture and civilisation of the East and its comparison with Western ,customs. With confrontation of the two cultures, in case the writer does not accept the change easily, the stereotypes will create a negative impact. In the twentieth century, because the number of the writers who have talked about the East in their works are far more than those in the nineteenth century and because many of them are eastern Francophone writers, who have admired the values of philosophy and thought of the East, their image of the East in French literature is different from that of the literature of the nineteenth century,

This essay deals with the origin and development of Ashikh-Kherib by Lermantov. This story was written in 1837. Lermontovs earlier prose (e.g. "Vadim" and "Princess Ligofaskia") separated the concept of "The hero of our time" from fiction. In this period there was a drastic upheaval in Lermantovs artistic thoughts which was influential in the second stage of his writing. If the main topic of his encounter with love is treachery, any encounter with the concept of love in his Hero of our time is the best example of a "not ideal" love. These examples have created a lawful disipline in his writing which indoubtably serves as an original guide for his prose.