PAZHUHESH-E ZABANHA-YE KHAREJI
Year:2004 | Volume:- | Issue:18|Papers Count:9

Franz Kafka as a philosophical writer is in search of truth; he gives his personal experiences, a mythological dimension. His Platonic desire to attain truth is the theme of his novels and short stories. In this essay, Kafka’s great works have been discussed in the light of The Old Testament. In all of his major works, truth is absent and the protagonist is desperately trying to attain it; this is symbolically demonstrated as a court, a castle or another country. In this respect, Kafka, may be compared to Hallaj or Movlana, but the difference is that these mystic figures are eventually re-united with their Beloved, while the protagonists of Kafka’s stories are living in purgatories and fail to achieve such reconciliations.

E. J., the promoter, theoretician, and pioneer of "New Nationalism Movement" in Germany, characterized his nationalistic belief in 1920s, metaphysically in the form of war memories of the First World War. His perception regarding the phenomenon of war as "War is the father of nationalism." provided appropriate context to discuss war and nationalism in German literature and among political circles, critics, and German/ Non- German intellectuals. Juenger’s extremist view on war and nationalism led to new national movements in Germany. He, however, separated himself from political parties who were against the ruling government and were trying to overthrow it, and followed a non-conformist political view. He considered an ideological war as the only way of challenging. To discuss the war literature of E. J in 1920s requires a closer examination of his life before the First World War. His life in this period witnessed an unrest era and an adventurous and rebellious individual life that revolted against the rigid system of bourgeoisie, in order to satisfy a combative, adventurous nature and revolt against the quiet daily life of modem era. This type of thought was observed objectively in literary works known as war literature.

If we accept that literature is a creative product of society, we should also accept that its aims cannot be separated from the aims of people who make it. Story and legend in literature does not necessarily have a specific time of origin. Perhaps the desire for training the younger generation and transferring the history of a nation to them is a reason for the creation of epics, legends and stories narrated by travelers, story- tellers, cameleers, and caravans of east, west, north and south. Each time a lyric or a story was being told in a corner of the earth, it was being combined by the traditions of another country, making it difficult to distinguish the original from the adapted form. Maybe it is for this reason that they have remained alive during the undulations of times and have survived from military and cultural crises, attacks, only the wounds of time is obvious on them. Reading these stories and lyrics reminds us that the structure and base of this great human treasure has a common, unanimous foundation.

ICT (Information and Communication Technology) has promoted educational sector and technical platforms. This promotion will soon escalate and promote the various selections of our educational environment. ICT has changed not only the academic equipments but it has also influenced the basic structure of classic teaching and has introduced a new kind of learning. Through these changes, the academic environment has come up with new roles for teachers and learners. At a glance, the educational section deals with three different approaches in the form of: classical learning, electronic learning, and online learning and different modified roles of teachers and learners. Teaching and Learning through each of these approaches requires a review (redefining) of the learning structure and it also requires discussion and study about the ways of a suitable platform, in which content can be presented. In this article, the specifications of learning type are mentioned with a contrastive point of view, through known factors.

In traditional grammar of Russian language, grammatical specification of "Case" is defined as those specifications of "Inflectional Case" related to the Noun. And accordingly we have six "Morphological cases" in this language. "Nominative", "Genitive ","Dative", "Accusative", "Instrumental" and "prepositional". According to Russian grammarians "Declension" is mainly a form derived from grammatical specification of case. Considering the "Inflectional Endings" of nouns, there are three types of "Productive Declensions". Studies and researches in modem Russian linguistics consider "Semantic case" as a global aspect of grammar and it is distinct from "Inflectional case". Inflectional case is one of the most important methods for expressing "Semantic case" in Russian language, while in Persian language; "Semantic case" is mostly expressed through using prepositions together with nouns. In Russian grammar, "Case Meanings" is divided into four general meaning groups: "subjective meaning", "Objective meaning", "adjectival meaning" and "Adverbial meaning". Every one of these general groups consists of several partial meanings.

Since the the introduction of the arabic word /"anbar/ in the 11th century in European Languages, (fr. ambre; eng. amber from lat. ambra), this word has been used to define two quite different substances: some sort of stone and a perfume. Contemporary lexicographers believe that ancient authors have recognized these two substances as the same and this identification has led to a semantic confusion. These lexicographers, however, have not throughly explained how this terminological confusion has taken place. The source of this confusion has been seemingly justifiable since the mode of extraction of these two natural substances from the sea is the same and so it would be evident that this confusion must have occured. This supposition is not based on medieval documents. The study of the historical documents shows that the designation of these two substances by the same word is problematic. Europeans who have extracted the amber from the Baltic Sea and well knew this substance have naturally assigned local terms to what is known later as amber. On the other hand, the main part of medieval knowlege on amber in the West comes from the oriental sources in Arabic language which the European scholars have exploited and translated in Latin (known as lapidaires in french). In the meanwhile, these main oriental sources have always distinguished the amber ("fossil resin", named kahroba) from the amber as a perfume (named "anbar). So this unexplained confusion apprears somewhere in the West during this period despite the clarity of the classical latin sources (Tacitus, Cassiodorus) as well as the Arabic literature on the subject.

Every piece of literary writing in the course of conveying its message to the reader structurally and meaningfully has its own parlance. However, a large number of structural forms in rendering to another language are modified even though their meaning is often the same. In translation of many literary works as an examples. Shakespeare's writings, the translator preserves the meaning in rendering the words; nevertheless, there is always a struggle on his part for the euphemism of the words with the text. To obtain an appropriate translation from the text, we need to change the elements in the original text, that is obtaining the literary translation with the literary adaptation. As a result, no authentic translation is possible without this adaptation. If we tend to enter the exact forms into the target language, it will seem incomprehensible and unacceptable to the reader. Therefore, any language and rhetorical change in translation, is acceptable, provided it does not harm the semantic content of the sentence.

"Adverb", one of the parts of speech in Russian, and Persian does not change in declensional cases. Syntactically, adverbs can have complements in Persian and Russian. Some linguists consider a comparative adverb the same as a changed adverb and they believe that adverbs change in Russian. In Persian, the syntactic function of a word in a sentence can distinguish an adjective from an adverb. It happens both in Persian and Russian that sometimes an adverb restricts a word or the meaning of a sentence to a specific sense. In Persian, all main components of a sentence can take complements. In neither of the languages, adverbs can ever come along with another word in genitive cases. They, however, develop a syntagmatic relation. A comparison of adverbs in both languages shows that some of the structures of the two languages, as far as the components of a sentence are concerned, are totally different from one another. Some impersonal sentences in Russian, in whose structure the role of a predicator is played by an adverb, are stated in personal sentences in Persian.