JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY
Year:2019 | Volume:11 | Issue:2 |Papers Count:46

The current monograph is a historical record of conceptual changes regarding the role of science, technology and innovation, particularly their role in growth and development. The story begins with pioneer scholars including Adam Smith, John Stewart Mill, Karl Marx and Joseph Schumpeter, the later who pave the way for the next generation of scholars after the Second World War thinking about the new economic system and the role of STI. The history of technical changes is then envisaged based on long waves of Schumpeter that completed by Freeman and Perez. Evolution of thoughts about the role of STI in development is described in the next part in order to show the role of state in this particular. Finally, a short summary of changes in Iran is discussed that demonstrates the weakness of theory building in the domestic system.

Philosophy of science considers science as a system including conceptual and propositional structures and as processes like explanation, problem-solving, discovery, and evaluation. It studies truth, falsehood, meaningfulness, and justification. On the other hand, science, technology, and innovation (STI) policy is a field that considers science as an economic-socialpolitical institution and studies its relationships with economic growth, competitiveness, security, employment, and welfare. Applying documentary research and conceptual analysis, this paper investigates possible paths of collaboration between these two research fields. The main conclusion of the paper is that, despite their apparent difference and separation, these two fields could cooperate in at least four productive ways: Providing philosophical analysis about epistemic constructs and common methods in STI policy, developing concepts of innovation and economic growth to include responsible and ethical dimensions, helping to the formation of a deeper understanding of the creational aspects of innovation process borrowing from cognitive science, and lastly but not least, helping to the formation of a critical approach to technology applying resources from philosophy of technology, are four directions that sketch landscapes of collaboration between these two fields.

The ethics of public policy is a branch of applied ethics. Having a look at policy process, it tries to provide analyses on different types of ethical challenges involved in that process and the ways that could resolve those challenges. Issues and problems discussed in the literature of the ethics of public policy are diverse and wide-ranging and a framework has not been proposed yet to systematically regulate that diversity. After providing a review on those diverse issues and themes, this paper proposes a systemic model of public policy and applies the model to regulating ethical themes and issues related to policy process. The framework developed in the paper classifies ethical problems relevant to policy into five main categories: ethical issues arising before decision-making, ethical issues arising after decision-making, ethical issues related to economic-socialinstitutional structures that affect policymaking, ethical problems arising from the activities of stakeholder groups, and finally, ethical issues related to ideas and normative frameworks in the minds of policy-makers.

In this article, some aspects of the relationship between social studies and policy making in science, technology and innovation (STI) are examined. STI have been the fields of study for social science and management researchers. The juncion point of these two is policy making. science, technology and innovation Policy making (STIP) as a part of puplic policy, needs to understand the meaning of science, technology and innovation in the social, economic, political and administrative institutions of society. The use of cultural and historical information and understanding of socety in policy making is necessary because human societies are spatial and temporal. Not only the embedment of a particular policy in different societies has different conditions and consequences, but also in different times for the same society, based on historical experiences, the meaning of a particular science, technology and innovation may be different. In this way, for a society, the social aspects of STI is important, as well as the consequences of STIP. To summarize, it is necessary to study issues such as STI prioritizing, STI diffusion, relationship between STIP and democracy, and their ethical consequences for society. Prior to policy-making, these studies are needed for more intelligent policy making and then for evaluating outcomes and improving policies.

The historical study of duality between neoclassical economics and evolutionary economics as the two main schools of economics in the field of science, technology and innovation policy (STIP) and its role in adopting different technology development strategies are the main objective of this research. Each of these schools have different analytical approaches and frameworks. On the one hand, the theoretical frameworks of neoclassical economics are articulated with fundamental assumptions such as instrumental rationality and rational choice, the possibility of achieving long-term equilibrium, existence of the science and technology market, and so on. In contrast, the evolutionary economics, which is generally viewed as a heterogeneous group of economic doctrine that have fundamental critique on neoclassical economics, in its field of science, technology and innovation, focuses on policy implications like the absence of a long-term equilibrium in science, technology And innovation and focus on topics such as absorption and learning capacity instead of the science and technology market. In this framework, the present paper, by examining the exact and historical theoretical assumptions and conceptual frameworks of these two schools of economics, has tried to examine the implications of these distinctions in the field of policy. The results of this research show that, despite the wide variations in the theoretical foundations of neoclassical economics and evolutionary economics, the policy implications of these schools in the field of technology and innovation policy have become convergent and complementary in recent years. The issue in Iran, despite the differences of opinion, can be seen to a large extent in policy making.

Policy making is a fundamental function of governments which is the intervention process in order to achieve results and realize the government’ s political vision. Accordingly, the study of public policy seeks describing and explaining the governments’ policy making and the way in which it is affected and changed. different frameworks and approaches have been introduced with the aim of explaining and prescribing in the field of public policy. The common point of these approaches is paying attention to the dynamics of actors, the contexts and their impact on policy making from prioritizing an issue in the policy environment to evaluatation and feedback on the policies implemented on that issue. Based on this, the field of science, technology and innovation as one of the most important public problems that directly affects society and its national competitiveness is always influenced by government interventions either directly or indirectly. In the field of science, technology and innovation policy, the concept of governance, due to addressing the roles and interactions of role-makers that lead to policy-making, has always been at the center of the policy-making process for researchers and policymakers. This paper, while analyzing the foundations and concepts of public policy and governance, highlights the implications of these two theoretical areas in the field of science, technology and innovation, and the case study of the ICT sector portrays one of the uses of these topics.

The present age, known as the knowledge based economy, is facing rapid and growing changes in human knowledge and in various social, economic, industrial, political and technological fields. Facing such conditions requires the intelligence and active reaction of STI policymakers to future developments, technological advancements, and their longterm effects. Strategic policy intelligence (SPI) plays an effective role in creating awareness of STI policymakers through the, process, diffuse and protect information in order to make it available to the right person at the right time. SPI has not been considered in a coherent way as a scientific concept in the literature in Iran. In order to fill this gap, this paper seeks to study this concept and its tools. In this regard, strategic intelligence (SI) relation with policy is described from three perspectives of the window of opportunity, Clarity of purpose and legitimacy of policy evidence. Then important SPI tools as foresight, technology forcasting, technology assessment and their application in various policy steps are explained. Finally, in order to emphasize the role of strategic intelligence in policy making, the Iranian case has been introduced.

For decades, in public and private organizations, systematic plans for the future are being conducted at sectoral, regional and national levels, and in various realms of science, technology, innovation, culture, environment, etc., and, of course, the context and vision of these programs have been focused on the field of science and technology. Futures research are now an approach to public policy and private decision making in the policies of science and technology, and in many cases respond to the strategic questions of science and society in a long-term perspective. In order to improve the relationship between research in the field of the futures and policy-making, it should be explored the possibility of linking this research with policy analysis through the typology of uncertainties in order to determine what kind of future research should be undertaken? This paper introduces four levels of uncertainty including Level 1, futurology (deterministic Future), Level 2, forecasting (probable futures), Level 3, foresight (plausible futures) and Level 4, futures studies (possible futures) In the following, their definitions and logic of how to allocate methods to each of them, are described. Also, by centering on the policy cycle as the basis of the policy process, the future-oriented functions of each stage are presented, as well as the examples of methods that can be used at each stage of the policy cycle. This paper tries to introduce futureoriented research into the policy STI policy.

Despite the growing expenditure of R&D caused the development of a knowledgebased approach to economic development, no country is able to research on the edge of science and technology in all areas of research, due to the increasing diversity and the nature of the interdisciplinary activities of research and innovation and thus, prioritysetting has a significant role in science, technology, and innovation policy. In this research, various dimensions (definitions, types, theoretical models, process, history, challenges and methods) of STI prioritysetting have been studied. Then, Smart Specialization has been introduced as the most up-to-date strategy based on the STI priority-setting, and in the end the prioritizing experience in Iran’ s comprehensive scientific map has been evaluated with a critical approach. The study indicates that all mechanisms for priority-setting are used simultaniously according to the pathdependency of priority formation, the historical stickiness of institutions, and the diffrentiated rationales behind government interventions; and the problem is the combination pattern of mechanisms. However, the overall structure of prioritysetting among different countries is converging to re-emphasizing on functional priorities, systematic approach to strategy and * Corresponding author: Mehdifatemy@modares. ac. ir prioritization, combination of top-down and bottom-up approaches, and division of work among various actors involving in the priority-setting proccess.

It has been about three decades since the formation of the concept of national innovation system and today it has become widely spread among policy makers as well as among scholars in science, technology and innovation all over the world. During its rapid growth and widespread, some disagreements about its basic and fundamental issues have been created. What is a national system of innovation? How has it developed? What is the theoretical core of the concept? Who makes use of it? Why is it useful for policy making? How can it be applied to developing countries? What are its main limitations? The present study tries to give a depth analysis of all these questions. Finally, in order to illustrate the application of the concept, Iran is selected for an analysis at national level.

The concept of sectoral systems of innovation is rooted in studies that have been published about three decades ago. But this concept has been seriously introduced about two decades ago and has been increasingly used in diverse industries in developed and developing countries since then. Each sectoral system of innovation consists of four key components, one of which is formal institution (policies, rules, regulations, and standards) and informal institution (beliefs, norms, and values). An overview of past studies in developed and developing countries suggests that a variety of government policies, especially science, technology and innovation policies, have a significant impact on the formation and evolution of different sectoral systems of innovation. This paper shows that different sectors require a variety of policies, and policies that have positive effects in one sector do not necessarily have such effects in other sectors. In addition, at the end of the paper, the impact of various government policies on the formation and development of gas turbine industry in Iran has been investigated. The review of this experience suggests that the government has contributed * Corresponding author: safdariranjbar921@atu. ac. ir to the formation and development of this sector by adopting various policies over time.

In order to improve understanding of the structure and dynamics of innovation systems, researchers and policy analysts have studied the various empirical cases. However, policymakers often face with problems in exploiting practical strategies. Among the different approaches to innovation systems, the technological innovation system has a close relationship with the concept of innovation policy. The purpose of this study is, therefore, to investigate the technological innovation system, its structures and functions and also to analyse this concept for a scheme of innovation policy and technology development. The influence of contexts and life cycles that affect the policy process are also considered. Finally, in order to illustrate the application of the concepts, the photovoltaic technological innovation system in Iran is investigated.

Regional innovation system (RIS) is one of the complementary approaches to innovation systems. Due to increase of regional imbalances and inequalities, RIS have recently attracted prominent attention of policy makers. Every region has its unique characteristics that affect economic transformation and evolution. Therefore, national policy mix is not sufficient to address specific regional needs. So, policymakers should consider socio-economic factors and institutional settings beside knowledge exploration and exploitation systems in regional level. According to innovation systems literature, this article attempts to introduce fundamental concepts of RIS, most known typologies of regions and, appropriate RIS policies. In addition, a case study of RIS in provinces of Iran is discussed in the end of this article.

Despite its popularity among scholars, practitioners and policymakers, there is still no consensus around the term “ innovation ecosystem” and related concepts. Ecosystem approach, which focuses on relationships between innovation system players and their interdependence to co-create value, role of private sector and small firms, role of digital technologies, open innovation, and market forces and demand side of innovation, can provide a complementary approach to innovation system to help augment innovation systems. In this paper, different ecosystem approaches are introduced and innovation ecosystem components, ecosystem life cycle phases, and policies to strengthen innovation ecosystems are reviewed. Since ecosystem literature is more focused on firm strategies than government policies, there is still no comprehensive framework for innovation ecosystem policies, so in this paper different innovation ecosystem policies are reviewed. Innovation ecosystems’ success depends on multiple factors, and different innovation ecosystem policies were introduced in literature, including supporting ecosystem transition, supporting shared vision creation, supporting co-evolution, supporting geographic proximity, supporting platform creation, and supporting desired ecosystem properties. At the end, Iran’ s biopharmaceutical innovation ecosystem is introduced as a case study.

Technology transitions are fundamental shifts in sociotechnical systems, it means that they are not simply technical changes, but also changes in social, cultural, infrastructural and institutional dimensions. Since mature technologies are integrated with all these dimensions, sociotechnical systems are usually locked in, and their ruling regimes are resistant to change. Transition means getting out of "lock in" situation, so policy makers for governing such transitions needs to pay attention to all these aspects to overcome path dependency and to lead sociotechnical systems in a way that meet desirable goals of society. Different approaches are suggested in policy making in the field of technology transition, such as multi-level perspective, technological innovation systems and strategic niche management and transition management explained in paper and an example of using strategic niche management in Iran is provided.

The purpose of this paper is to introduce and examine institutions that influence science and technology (S&T) development and policy considerations regarfing institutional failures. On this basis, present paper investigates the concept of the institution in economics and innovation studies, and categorizes institutions under physical institutions, including active organizations in STI development (such as universities, firms, government), hard institutions (such as laws, policies and standards) and soft institutions (such as interactions, routines, and norms), and defines institutions as a set of human made constraints and organizations that shape the interactions, behaviors, and performance of different actors in society. In addition, dependency of the institutions, either generally or those influence S&T development, to the economic, political and social context in which they exist is a consideration that have been emphasized. Among other aspects of institutions effects, their impact on the performance of various analytical levels, including firms, industrial sectors and the development, and on the development of STI is examined. Our findings suggest, intellectual property, education, learning and R&D routines, interactions and trust among actors are the key institutions that influence S&T development. Institutional failures that emerge from weaknesses in the functioning of existing institutions or lack of required institutions, and the need for policy interventions on this basis for promoting S&T development are also issues of importance in institutional analysis, which offer a variety of policy implication aimed at policy and decision makers.

The The role of universities since the inception of the Bologna University in the late 11th century until the 19th century, fulfilling education function has been the concern of universities. Gradually, the increased importance of science policy in the early 20th century, universities and research institutes became responsible for research function as well. In addition to the two mentioned principal functions, some other functions have been proposed for universities and research institutes known as the third mission. Amplified significance of technology and innovation policy since the mid-20th century led to technology development efforts by universities through mechanisms such as collaboration with industry and founding spin-offs. In recent years, with the emergence of systemic view to innovation and then innovation systems, the role of universities and research institutes has also become of more salience in innovating and creating economic profits. More recently some scholars, by coining developmental universities concept, have raised the role of universities and research institutes in promoting innovation and entrepreneurship, in other words, playing a social and economic part based on the needs of their proximal communities. Along with the changes in role of universities and research institutes, policies have been designed and implemented by governments to strengthen the functions of education, research, and the third mission in different countries. In this article, various aspects of the role and influence of universities and research institutes in the system of science, technology and innovation and the course of their evolution are discussed. Two case studies of activities, especially focused on their third mission, of two universities in Iran are presented in the last section.

According to the driven role of knowledge and technology in the development of countries and the public goods of knowledge, the economic exploitation of knowledge and technology requires their proprietary. Policymaking on protecting and its requirements is important and policy setting, on the one hand, encouraging innovation processes for creators and entrepreneurs, and, on the other, modifying these policies in such a way that the rete of development and dissemination of knowledge overshadowed the strong regulation. These policies vary depending on the development situation of each country. Therefore, government involvement in setting innovation policy in the intellectual property system is essential issue. This intervention will be at the level of the components, namely, regulations, Institution, organizations and actors, and at the level of functions. Therefore, in this chapter, after a brief introduction, the role of intellectual property in economic growth and the scope and the role of each intellectual property protection type will be presented. Then, the necessity of government intervention will be expressed in policy making and institutional norm settings, depending on the different approaches from the perspective of the type of government intervention. In continuous, the intellectual property system will be described in terms of its structures, laws and actors, and then some policies regarding to the intellectual property infrastructure will be presented. In the end, the status of Iran in the aforementioned points will be discussed along with two examples of areas of application and significance importance.

New Technology-based Firms play a key role in the knowledge-based economy for innovation and technology development in countries. Agility and Attention to Innovative Technologies and Solutions distinguish these firms from traditional ones. These firms have different attributes depending on the type of scope and size. So their supporting policies are different from other companies. Generally, policy support for NTBF's is divided into four categories of financing support, legal exemptions, market development support and organizational and managerial empowerment support, and then policy makers design related policies tools in one of the four categories based on the features of the NTBF's. Whatever the system of support will respond more comprehensively and more precisely to the needs of NTBF's, the possibility of achieving successful results increases. In this article, the importance and characteristics of the growth of NTBF's, along with supportive policies for the achievement of this growth and development have been addressed, and some of the supportive policies applied in Iran have been expressed.

Technology development and commercialization process is a capital intensive activity. So, science, technology and innovation financing, by an appropriate method, in appropriate time and by the appropriate resources is a very important issue. Innovative firms’ financing methods vary in different stages of the company life cycle; from personal resources to banking resources, venture capital, crowdfunding, and stock markets. Different actors use different financing methods and together shape the Innovation Financing System (IFS). In this paper we first introduce financing sources for innovative companies at different stages of their life cycle and then explore the players of innovation financing system. Then, while reviewing the global trends of innovation financing and financing trends in developing countries, an institutional map of Iran's innovation financing system is presented.

In the neoclassical and evolutionary economics, the emphasis is placed on the importance of proximity to facilitate the innovation process. Neoclassical economics with the focus on the aggregation advantages, such as cost savings and economy of scale and the evolutionary economics with the emphasis on the benefits of firms’ proximity such as knowledge spillovers, emply the necessity of designing policies and tools based on the geographical proximity. In the geographical proximity structures, teams, technological firms, startups and industrial companies are located together. The teams and companies located in these structures, while having a joint infrastructure at a lower cost, benefit from the knowledge and technology spillovers. In this chapter, the importance of geographical proximity in innovation is presented from different theories’ perspective, and then various structures based on geographical proximity, including accelerator, incubator, science and technology park, science and technology town, technology town and industrial estate commensurate with different stages of the firms’ life cycle, are reviewed and compared. Finally, an example of aggregation of these structures in a geographical region, i. e. Isfahan province has been presented.

Collaborative networks have been acknowledged as an efficient tool for the optimized management of resources, knowledge transfer between entities, sharing of assets and reduction of development risks in the industrial, technologic, business and economic sectors. The global experience indicates that a single firm or organization does not have all the necessary capabilities and assets for introducing fundamental innovations to the market in fast-growing areas of science and technology. Under these circumstances, networks can act as the origin of innovation. Networking is not a new approach in the world. However, over the last few decades, attention has grown considerably over networks and the relationships among agents within them. There are two patterns for establishing science and technology networks. Beside bottom-up networks created spontaneously by individuals or organizations, there is another type of collaborative networks, which governmental organizations often establish them as formal planned, top-bottom entities. These networks are formed as governmental policy tools for pursuing certain national or regional goals. In this paper, firstly, we introduce the network concept and its functions. Then there is a discussion about the rationale of government interventions in establishing the * reza_asadifard@tsi. ir formal S&T networks particularly in a developing country like Iran. We also elaborate on how these networks are used as policy tools for the support and development of science and technology.

In this paper, basic science regarded as the output of basic research has been the subject of investigation. Basic research, i. e. research undertaken with the aim of developing a fundamental understanding of the phonamonon under investigation, has properties that make policy decisions about it challenging. The most important of these properties, all of which could have exceptions, are: conceptual ambiguity, uncertainty and high risk, impossibility of a comprehensive prediction of practical ends and precise quantitative assessment of the benefits gained, the mediums and time lags for realization of the practical ends, difficulties in approapriation of the findings and importance in the national innovation system. In this paper, the main themes in the scientific and policy literature on basic research, including the definition and characteristics, theoretical foundations, and some policy aspects, with an emphasis on a sciece policy perspective is reviewed and based on that, some lines for future research is proposed. The literature reviewed yields the following key findings: 1) there is a consensus on the importance of basic research in development and the necessity that governments support it; the debate is on the limits; total elimination of basic research and using the findings of others is a rejected hypotheis; 2) there are sever criticisms about * Corresponding author: taha. shokatian@modares. ac. ir the governmental pressures on the scientific institution to represent the benefits gained from basic research; however, the absolute freedom of the scientific institution is not accepted as well; 3) the benefits from basic research are diverse and complete assessment of them is not possible.

Various policy instruments including financial or non-financial ones (e. g. instruments for providing human capital, information or equipment) in addition to the reinforcement of legal framework are needed to remove impediments and encourage the businesses to invest on R&D. Each tool has its own advantages and disadvantages and the countries use different sets of instruments in terms of their business sector's characteristics. Using tax incentives and grants is still common and generic instruments have been more replaced by technology-targeted or population-targeted instruments. The focus of R&D policies is shifting from the science and technology framework to the innovation framework. As a result, there is a shift from financial instruments to non-financial ones. The policy measures for improving framework conditions (such as, legal reforms) in addition to the demand-side policies, indirect financial supports, and public-private partnerships are applied more. In parallel, paying attention to the instruments' impact on the input additionality and output additionality indices is necessary to choose the best alternatives.

Rapid technological changes and profuse innovations are the result of moving from isolated efforts to collaboration for creation of new sources of value among firms and governments. Such approach toward innovation has been known as open innovation in the literature and many researchers have studied its different aspects. In order to introduce this concept and investigate how policies could support it, this study tries to present the concept, its history and modes and policy tools to promote it among firms. Based on the literature review, a 3×3 matrix with two dimensions including Innovation Direction (Inbound, Outbound, and Coupled) and Knowledge process (Creation, Diffusion and Exploitation) is proposed in order to categorize the policy tools. Finally, a case of open innovation affairs among Iranian biopharmaceutical firms is studied to recognize the gaps in public policies to boost open innovation in the industry.

Foreign direct investment has been known as one of the most effective tools for financing and technology transfer and so there is a huge competition for attracting multinational companies among developing countries. However, the current situation indicates that the positive effects of FDI do not automatically occur. To enhance the productivity and development of domestic technology capabilities, FDI policies should be aligned with national industrial policies. A continuous and targeted engagement between multinational corporations and the manufacturing and learning systems of host country are essential. In this paper, while exploring recent literature of FDI, main FDI theories that explain why it takes place are discussed. Some new theoretical approaches state that foreign investment not only serves the purpose of exploiting technological capabilities in other countries, but also serves as an important tool for developing the technological capabilities of foreign investors; so developing countries try to attract more share from this kind of FDI which sets wider linkages with their innovation system. Also, internationalization policies (Outward FDI) has recently received more attention from developing countries. * Corresponding author: saremi@tsi. ir Finally, one of the important recent cases of FDI in the country (Irancell Company) has been examined from the perspective of policies related to the development of technological capabilities by foreign investment.

Local Content policies (LCPs) are generally government interventions whose long-term goal is to increase the share of employment or sales in each of the value chain segments within the host country. In the last few decades, different countries have used different policies for Locoal Content, some of them are successful and some unsuccessful. Hence, arguments have been put forward in support of and against these policies. Increasing value-added, market failures/externalities, and social objectives are among the reasons behind supporting these policies and misallocation of resources and/or inefficiencies, misalignment between instruments and policy objectives, international regulation, and institutional frameworks are Arguments against the Use of Local Content Policies. In this paper, at first, the concepts and history of Local Content Policies are discussed, and then the components of such policies, such as goals, incentives or penalties, and appropriate indicators for assessing and monitoring these policies, have been described and based on this framework local content laws in Iran for over two decades has been analyzed.

Research and development (R&D) is not the only technology acquisition method as, in some cases, R&D is not feasible and economic. Thus, technology transfer is considered as one of the efficient and shortcut ways for acquiring technological capabilities. The concept of international technology transfer refers to the technological cooperation between firms in the international atmosphere in which developing countries are able to internalize transferred technologies through absorption, application and development of transferred technology. With respect to the importance of national policies in relation to technology transfer and its impact on technological development, this paper, by reviewing the current perspectives, explains the evolutionary trends of the international technology transfer policies. We show import substitution policy has been already replaced by export-led policy.

Economic growth and development is highly tied to the technological development of the firms and industries of each country, thus determining the enhancement of the economic position in a mutual interaction. In most cases, achieving technological development for latecomer firms and countries, becomes possible through the primary pathway of technological learning, through which latecomers try to reduce their technological and economic gap with technological frontiers and pioneers. This becomes possible with the help of government’ s support and formulating and implementing proper policies; Therefore government policies plays an important role in how technological learning progresses. Accordingly, after explaining the concept of technological learning and its importance in developing countries as well as the concepts of technological gap and latecomers, this paper investigates the mechanism by which the technological learning takes place in firms. Next, technological learning modes, resources, processes and models are explained. This section is followed by pointing out the importance of governmental interventions in technological learning improvement and also the most important government policies in this field. Finally, this paper concludes with reviewing the * Corresponding author: aida. mohajeri@modares. ac. ir successful experience of technological learning in an Iranian company, i. e. the MAPNA Group, and investigating the role of government policies in this achievement.

Technological catch-up refers to the process of closing the technological gap between a latecomer and an advanced country. It is argued that this process is an antecedent for boosting economic growth. Technology and innovation policies are pivotal in the success of technological cath-up as there is a constant need for adapting policies with technical changes. The experience of successful countries demonstrate an important transition from industrial/trade policies to technology/innovation policies. It means that trade protection and currency exchange policies are not suffice for enhancing technological capabilities in the domestic industries, therefore, states have to play an active role in finding and exploiting the windows of oppurtunities mainly arise from technological disruptions. The paper tries to provide a framework for analyzing the role of government in this respect. Intriguingly, the historical record shows that the Iranian government did not adopt such a transition. Recent efforts to use technology and innovation policy tools were also brought limited success because those policies were not designed based on windows of oppurtunities.

Many scholars emphasis on regulation as a one of innovation policy instrument, recently. The variety of regulation and increasing cost of financial innovation policy instruments justify the design and usage of regulation, however, direction and stringency of its effect is a crucial matter for policymakers. It is a necessity to understand why/how/what regulation take effects on innovation. Hence, this paper aims to clarify this effect mechanism from government intervention, economic theories, value chain, and cost compliance perspectives. Also, traditional regulatory frameworks are criticized by the changing environment of firms and industries that are affected by increasing competition and, consequently, emerging disruptive innovation. The dynamic regulation frameworks are the developing response to these criticisms that I describe their important features. Finally, this research tries to provide evidence of the effect of regulations on innovation by presenting how the rules and regulations apply to pharmaceutical firms in Iran.

Innovation policies are in general categorised into demand-side and supply-side. Despite a long tradition of discussing their importance, demand-side innovation policies have been out of the focus of innovation policy scholars and policy-makers. Demand affects innovation through four mechanisms: Changes in demand can spur gradual and path-dependent innovations; Sensitivity of demand to innovations triggered from the supply-side could ultimately stimulate cycles of new demands; Demand of users can impact innovation features through cooperative production of innovation by users and producers; and Users may modify purchased innovations according to their specific needs. Rationales for demand-side policymaking could be categorised into three: Overcoming market and system failures; Spurring economic growth; and Market transformation for societal goals. In a taxonomy, these policies are classified as: Supporting public and governmental demand; Supporting private demand; and Systemic approaches. The first category and specifically the policy of Public Procurement of Innovation (PPI) are one of the most direct and used policies in the demand side. In this policy, states act as a lead market, leverage public demand and procure innovative products and services * Corresponding author: najmoddin. yazdi@sharif. ir instead of routine ones to stimulate further innovation demand.

Design and choice of policy instruments are considered as key factors in STI policymaking process. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the nature of policy instruments and the logic of government intervention in the innovation system, based on these instruments’ mechanisms. In addition, considering ongoing changes in STI policymaking environment, the approaches to the instruments and their effects are evolving and because of that, there is a need to review and revise our point of view. There are three major trends for classification of the instruments based on intervention logic, target groups, and the mechanism through that the instruments solve the problems of innovation systems. Respecting that, a focusbased classification is suggested in this paper which classifies the policy instruments into four main categories consist of instruments focused on stimulating the innovation supplyside, instruments focused on stimulating the innovation demand-side, instruments focused on the formation of systemic relations, and instruments focused on infrastructures and regulation. Although the more recent studies have a systemic approach to the policy instruments based on their potential for solving the problems of innovation systems, in this paper, we title a specific type of instruments as systemic instruments which * Corresponding author: n. radaei@atu. ac. ir their focus is on capacity building for more interactions and communications between different actors of the system. Eventually “ 110 Programs for Supporting Knowledgebased Companies in Iran” is reviewed as a case study and the results indicate that a major part of these programs is direct financial support. In addition, amongst different types of systemic instruments, few choices are considered in these programs.

The complexity of innovation system problems and the diversity of policy instruments have changed the focus of policymakers from finding the best instruments to formulating instruments packages. The packages envelope instruments which together and in combination have the most positive impact on the policy objectives. This change has been accompanied by the "policy mix" concept which refers to the interactions and interdependencies between policy instruments influencing the level of policy goal achievement. The design of a policy mix has to maximize the synergies and minimize potential contradictions between the instruments in order to maximize the effectiveness. Examining the exact interactions between policy tools needs the implementation of the policy mix, monitoring and its ex-post evaluating. Therefore, designing a policy mix is a dynamic process and depends on the feedbacks from implementation process, which in parallel with the multiplicity of the available alternatives necessitates the application of systematic approaches to design a policy mix.

The complexity of the science, technology and innovation issues and the difficulty of understanding innovation policies effects, on the one hand, and the low effectiveness or undesirable effects of many of the existing policies, on the other hand, highlights the need for more precision in the formulation and selection of each element of them. designing a new policy or reviewing and criticizing proposed or existing policies, needs a framework that specify the essential elements of these policies in order to allow the analysis of the proportionality between their elements. Accordingly, these article examines the essential elements of policy programs and provides a framework for developing these programs based on these elements. Finally, the application of the proposed framework in the criticizing of existing programs is shown by reviewing the Iran's Sixth Development Plan in the field of science and technology.

STI policies face many challenges in societies including ambiguities and uncertainties toward the future. To tackle with challenges, many instruments are developed. Roadmapping as one of these instruments initially is used as a planning tool at the firm level in technology development, but during the last years, national science, technology and innovation (STI) policy makers have become aware of the potential roadmapping offers for strategic technology and innovation management and begun applying it in the context of STI policy and priority setting in this context especially. Recently, to meet the need of STI policies, some of roadmap features have been strengthened, including: holistic (attention to social issues and the social context of innovations and policies), alternative futures (use of different scenarios toward different perspectives), and participation and active learning. In this way, it has become a powerful instrument of STI policy. This paper introduces the roadmapping concept history, structure, and processes, and designing and implementing the STI policies, and finally, lists the STI's performance indicators.

Policy evaluation is essential for governments to improving effectiveness and accountability. In science, technology, and innovation (STI) domain in line with the growth of national and regional policymaking, the literature and experiences of policy evaluation have been developed. In this paper, after reviewing concepts and various components of policy evaluation including criteria, timing, methodologies, and indicators a complete evaluation process with its all modules is presented. The main criteria including appropriateness, efficiency, and effectiveness with their indicators, quadruple timing including ex-ante, real-time, intermediate, and ex-post evaluation, triple levels of aggregation including policy, program, and activity as well as quantitative, qualitative, and semiquantitative methodologies are mentioned as evaluation components that prepare necessary information for evaluation expert groups in a systematic process. The results of policy evaluation are always published and provide feedback to policymakers for improving the goals and programs. The paper also discusses the evaluability of policies and at the end presents an evaluation experience for nanotechnology policies in Iran.

Recently, with the advent of knowledgebased economies, the importance of science, technology and innovation (STI) have grown in different countries development. Therefore, the performance evaluation of STI activities recognized as a necessity. In this paper, the STI evaluation concepts and models introduce and a new evaluation model has been proposed based on the integration of performance-based and key stakeholdersbased evaluation approaches. The pool of input, output, outcome and impact indicators have classified into five specialized fields including natural sciences, engineering sciences, human sciences, social sciences, and health sciences. Then, performance evaluation is feasible in terms of relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, and usefulness for the four main stakeholders including policymakers, researchers and technicians, industrial beneficiaries, and the public. The final results presented in the form of a radar chart which we showed one sample performance evaluation of universities and research institutes.

This paper holds this conviction that some failures of innovation policy can be attributed to the political context hosting that innovation system. Accordingly, to understand the root causes of these failures, researchers have to step out of the innovation system approaches and study the political system structure and evaluate the policies based on this study. The paper, then, build an eclectic model by bridging between the stakeholder model of public policy evaluation and the three archetypes of political system structure. The paper argues that the new and eclectic model can be applied to evaluate the general public policies by its process, content and the political according to MCconnel’ s theory. However, this model has some shortcomings because it is not backed by innovation theories. That is why, in the second phase, another and more developed model; the eclectic – functional model was built based on the components of innovation system, especially the function 4, the guidance of the research. It shows how the imbalance of political system structure, among the civil society and market and the State reflects on the dynamism of interactions among the structure and functional components of an innovation system and gridlocks the related innovation policies. The paper concludes with a case study on biofuel policy failure in Iran.

In the recent years, there have been a consensus formed over the new trends of innovation policy in the making which are more complex and extensive compared to neo-classic and evolutionary schools. This paper aims to review some of these trends in the context of STI policy theories, and more specifically, to focus on one of them which is set to bring forth new theoretical paradigm to meet environmental challenges. In a comparative studies, the common and distinct characteristics of the new paradigm are pointed out and then, the paper proceeds to explain its policy rationale, governance layers, actors and policy actions. And finally, it conducts the application of this framework on the case of study of water policy in Iran. The paper concludes the neoclassic and evolutionary paradigms designing STI policy with the aim of economic growth cannot be suitable for the framework by which the water policy analysis and the water policy needs the new paradigm of transition failure within which the directionality, demand, coordination and reflexive failure are the rationales for policy making.