Journal of Philosophical Investigations in Scopus
Year:2019 | Volume:12 | Issue:25 |Papers Count:15

Constructivism is a theory that believes moral judgments are not real things but they are constructed by practical reason in a rational procedure for resolving practical problems in front of us. Christine Korsgaard, a contemporary American philosopher, is a Kantian constructivist, whose theory I consider in this paper. She is a radical constructivist and disagrees with moral realism and denies moral truths even as abstract facts. According to Korsgaard moral judgments are constructed by rational agents. She believes moral and political principles are generally solutions to human practical problems. She justifies the normativity of moral obligations from this point that they are constructed by agent for resolving his problems. There are some objections to Korsgaard’ s constructivism; one of them is to place humanity as the source of value.

Immanuel Kant presents several formulations of the categorical imperative, first of which is called “ Formula of Universal Law” containing the wellknown generalizability test. Numerous pros and cons have been associated with the nature and application of this formula in the history of moral philosophy, each with its staunch supporters and opponents. In this paper, we will first review the nature of this formula and its position in Kant's moral system. Second, we will evaluate its application in practice and argue that some thinkers have not fully grasped Kant's purpose and have attributed improper defects to this formula. Third, Shelly Kagan's consequential interpretation of the general formula will be investigated to figure out whether it is possible to draw consequential normative sentences from this formula. Finally, we will evaluate alleged criticisms against this formula in the history of moral philosophy in some detail.

This paper focuses on the question concerning the nature of human illness in Heidegger’ s thought according to the Daseinsanalytic approach to psychology in its broadest sense. In this regard, we will first clarify the relationship between illness, as a phenomenon of privation in Heidegger’ s own words, the state of health, and the human specific mode of being in this framework which determines how being healthy is to be understood appropriately. Then, the importance of the general existential structures of human being, according to Heidegger, such as human spatiality and the temporal feature of human Dasein, for the Daseinsanalytic illustration of different forms of pathological being-in-the-world will be considered. Finally, we will bring into focus a theoretical challenge related to the Daseinsanalytic understanding of human health, concerning the problematic link between the standard of human openness to the highest degree, freedom for the possibilities of life and existential awareness on the one hand, and the ordinary normal experience of responding to the basic human existential traits as a touchstone of the state of health and the deviations from it, on the other.

In this text, which employs the analytic-comparative method, we read the Poetics of Aristotle in a new way to take an example of translation as an artistic creation. We can present the result of the essay as a metaphor called “ the art of translation” , and then we refer to four evidences which can support our metaphor: reading the text as seeing the world, understanding the meaning as perceiving the main action, representing the text as recreating an image, and word making as the art of poetic. If we want to explain the useful dimension of our research, it can be said: every translation (if it is considered as an artistic creation) has a moral dimension which depends on its imitation of the author's line and reader's culture, and also has an artistic dimension that attends to the beauty of text and new vision of culture. According to Moderation theory of Aristotle, an ideal intercultural translation sees the right of author and reader by the equal criterion. Then it shows a production that is combined with “ representation” , a term which can embrace the beauty and ethic in the art of translation.

In this paper I provide a reading of Derrida's seminal text, "White Mythology: Metaphor in the Text of Philosophy". In this text, Derrida deals with the encounter between philosophy and metaphor as an external element to philosophy. The conclusion is that Philosophy tends to internalize any external element. Philosophy considers metaphor as something ought to be subjected. Therefore, when one searches for the metaphor in philosophy, what he or she finds not the metaphor itself, but the concept of metaphor? Metaphor in the text of philosophy is the philosophical metaphor. Derrida at the end discusses the metaphor of metaphor, the tireless metaphorical movement, and unlimited metaphor as the truth of metaphor. Philosopher during its history always considers metaphors as something to be subjugated and controlled. So, metaphor in the text of philosophy is the concept of metaphor, not metaphor in itself, which according to Derrida, pure dissemination. In this sense, the origin of concepts is not conceptual.

Mir Damad, in Qabasā t argues that existence cannot be a real property for essences. If existence, he argues, were a real property of an essence, there would remain no distinction between simple-if and compound-if questions. It is well-known that Mullā Sadrā has given three different accounts in order to explain essence’ s being existent: first that existence is an analytical property for essence; second that none of existence or essence is a property of the other one; and third that essence is a property of existence. In this paper, I will argue that the first account would be defeated by Mī r Dā mā d’ s argument. The second account concedes the conclusion of the argument and then it would be in contrary with Mullasadra’ s own view on the reality of existence, unless this account is augmented with the third one. The third account, however, can evade the argument. But it should be noted that the third account is based on Mullasadra’ s own view on the reality of existence and the primacy of existence to essence.

One of the profound concepts in monotheistic religions and Islam is the culture of prayer and supplication. If the truth of prayer and its acceptance is not explained well, some ambiguities will associate certain theological discussions like the system of divine destiny and providence. In the current essay we have adopted a philosophical and rational approach to discuss the issue of acceptance of prayer in transcendent theosophy. We have focused on one of the key ambiguities, i. e. the relationship between acceptance of prayer and the system of destiny and providence. In the present article we have sought to provide an analysis of the issue of acceptance (granting) of prayer and its relationship with the system of destiny and providence based on Mulla Sadra's ontological perspective of the universe as well as his view of the hierarchy of the existential and epistemic initiation. The basic question of the current inquiry is as follows: "What kind of relationship does exist between the system of divine destiny and providence and the issue of acceptance of prayer according to the intellectual principles of Mulla Sadra? " Some of the points which have been uncovered through this research consist of: acceptance of prayer not only is not in conflict with the system of divine destiny and providence rather it is a part of this system and represents the means and medium through which the prayer reaches its destination. Prayer and its acceptance does not lie outside the causal system which is in line with the divine providence and there is a type of unity between the cause of acceptance of prayer and the Decretum Dei.

Ethical egoism often arises in the human realm and following teleological theories. However, the questions are supplied and pursuit in the divine realm. In the philosophy of Sadra exists two witnesses of God Egoism-In fact, are two obstacles of Altruism of God-Which include: ” Excellent no attention to below” , “ reference for all purposes to the subject” . This evidence is in conflict with the concept of divine grace Sadra. The main question of research is: How can egoism evidence be consistent with the theory of divine grace and God's original Favor to the “ other” ? Achievement of this study are as follows: In the present study was shown that God is not egoism but altruism. The results of the analysis of such terms as “ Purpose” and “ egoism” , and principle “ simple reality is everything” and Ontological analysis of the principle of causality.

Wisdom and power can be regarded as the principles used by philosophers in their encounter with the universe and its explication. In the current essay, wisdom is understood as a basis for understanding the affairs which are immune to change and mortality. The power also represents one's ability to determine and change all judgments and relations on behalf of power. Then, if a philosopher considers the essential features of all entities to be existentiated, in the view of such philosopher power does not have any limitation and power will be the basis for him. But if we consider relations immune to change we have indeed prioritized the wisdom over the power and sided with the idea of priority of wisdom over the power. In the eyes of such philosopher the wisdom will be the basis. In the present article we seek to articulate this priority of wisdom over power in transcendent theosophy of Mulla Sadra based on his doctrine of primacy of existence. To this end, we will investigate the works of Mulla Sadra focusing on the doctrine of primacy of existence.

According to Aristotle, definition is the first step to aquire scientific knowledge. And the full knowledge of objects is possible only by knowing their essence and essential definition. Following Aristotle, Avicenna thinks that the full knowledge of things is gained through the knowledge of their essence. Admitting the difficulty of understanding the essentials of objects, he states, based on his essentialist doctrine, that real definition should imply quiddity, truth and perfection of essential existence of the limited object so that it represents all its essence. But man can not identify essentials of objects and true definitions of them. Avicenna describes details of all kinds of definitions, and this article we modifies and completes the rules of Aristotle's theory of definition. In will explain it.

The current studies have revealed that there are some similarities between the philosophical foundations of Sohrab Sepehri's poems and some phenomenological notions. The essence of Sepehri's message as well as that of phenomenologists is that human being should discover himself or herself through his or her pure cognitive nature, and not from science or books. Following a descriptive and content analysis approach, in this study, we have dealt with the phenomenological thoughts on the creation of some innovative image in Sepehri's poems. It is assumed that some of Sepehri's images cannot be revealed just by literary analysis, and a philosophical perspective is required too. To create images like 'a mere bird' and 'the frank sunlight', Sepehri has resorted to some notions in phenomenology. Edmund Husserl has opened a novel area of thought called 'epoche'. It refers to a stage of cognition in which the mere self or the thoughtful self and observer suspends all his or her judgements on the existence of the world. When Sepehri pens; 'the mere bird sings. ', his goal is not just creating a foregrounded and innovative image, but indeed he attempts to give weight to a concept like 'epoche' by his own philosophical impressions.

In this article‚ after giving a brief account of characteristics and contents of Gulshan-i Rrā z (The Secret Rose Garden) and Mahā yā nah Sutras‚ we try to answer the principal questions on “ Thought” and problems relating to it. This article consists of three parts. In the first part‚ the nature of “ Thought” in Gulshan-i Rā z and Mahā yā nah Sutras is discussed. In the second part‚ the different levels of “ Thought” are studied. Furthermore, it is stated that in Gulshan-i Rā z and Mahā yā nah Sutras “ Thought” and “ Intuition” show in two realms of rational and pararational perspectives. In the third part‚ it is stated that‚ although belonging to two different traditions‚ Gulshan-i Rā z and Mahā yā nah Sutras place “ Visionary Knowledge” above “ Thinking” . For “ Visionary Knowledge” can purify one’ s heart of worldly pollutions‚ but “ Thinking” cannot bring human beings to knowing all truths and setting themselves free from pain. So Gulshan-i Rā z and Mahā yā nah Sutras clearly call human beings to “ Visionary Knowledge” , since‚ according to the above sources‚ this level above “ Thinking” is identical with union. Findings of this study show that mystical systems approximate each other in the subject of epistemology.

Undoubtedly, Kant is one of the most effective figures in the history of western philosophy because he created a great evolution in this history by his so-called Copernican revolution and the interwoven relation of subject and object. As is acknowledged by many scholars, Critique of Pure Reason is one of the most important epistemological works in the new era that has set the boundaries of knowledge and has offered a new and unmatched description of how knowledge is gained by subject. Accordingly, most released commentaries of Kant’ s philosophical outlook are epistemological. But Alain Badiou, contemporary French philosopher, contrary to common interpretation, presents an ontological one. He himself offers a kind of ontology named subtractive ontology, and believes that we can recognize it, due to how Kant formulates transcendental subject and object, forms of sensible intuition, and categories of understanding. As a result, he describes the features of Kantian ontology in his works Briefings on Existence and Theoretical Writings. The authors of this article see his claim notable and realizable. So, we will try to introduce the specifications of subtractive ontology and then check Badiou’ s claim of Kant’ s ontology. Finally, we will explain some reasons to criticize his belief.

Including complex issues in the discussions change and move on, to move in the immaterials. Is the foundation can be found in the philosophy found in single-sided to justify moving? It seems that according to the meaning of "qualification" in "and accept potential", can be said that moving fluid, the simple fact is, though simple, its each hypothetical element is in itself potential in relation to its next element, though it is in actuality in itself. When the potential element (hypothetical capable) becomes nothing, another element of flowing reality is actualized. In fact, the accepted perceiver (real capable) is another degree of more complete element which is simultaneously created outside along with the accepted and is similar to hypothetical capable (previous annihilated element). Therefore, the actualization of movement does not necessitate that the flowing reality is a composition including matter or a simple thing dwelling in matter or belonging to it. As a result, movement is simple and includes renewal and coming into being in itself and is the same as gradual manifestation of potency in substantial motion. Such a thing does not contradict with nonmaterial object, so it can have movement. An example of such a movement in soul, both when it belongs to the body and when it is in intermediary world, can be well proved.

he controversial idea of incommensurability in Kuhn’ s works was gradually replaced by the translatability thesis, for which two distinct arguments could be formulated. The first is extracted from his theoretical contextual approach to meaning, and the second form his taxonomic conception of natural kind terms. According to each one, it could be given an untranslatability condition, in terms of which we can talk about untranslatability of theories with different vocabularies. I will formulate these untranslatability conditions in this essay, confessing that accepting these conditions will terribly limit the possibility of translation. On the other hand, the maxims critics of Kuhn suggested for translation involves a potential tension and fail to play the role a reliable maxim plays in a translation. In fact, within various versions of these maxims, there is a potential tension between maximizing rationality and maximizing truth in the original text that makes us suspect to follow them systematically.